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st　pitch　of　generalisation；　the　civilisation　of　all　humanity；　by　which　is　usually　meant　the　peoples　inhabiting　a　small；　northwestern　corner　of　the　great　mother…earth。
Modern　history　has　rejected　the　faiths　of　the　ancients；　without　putting　any　new　conviction　in　their　place；　and　the　logic　of　the　position　has　forced　the　historians；　leaving　behind　them　the　rejected；　divine　right　of　kings　and　fate　of　the　ancients；　to　come　back　by　a　different　path　to　the　same　point　again：　to　the　recognition；　that　is　（1）　that　peoples　are　led　by　individual　persons；　and　（2）　that　there　is　a　certain　goal　towards　which　humanity　and　the　peoples　constituting　it　are　moving。
In　all　the　works　of　the　more　modern　historians；　from　Gibbon　to　Buckle；　in　spite　of　their　apparent　differences　and　the　apparent　novelty　of　their　views；　these　two　old　inevitable　positions　lie　at　the　basis　of　the　argument。
In　the　first　place　the　historian　describes　the　conduct　of　separate　persons　who；　in　his　opinion；　lead　humanity　（one　regards　as　such　only　monarchs；　military　generals；　and　ministers　of　state；　another　includes　besides　monarchs；　orators；　scientific　men；　reformers；　philosophers；　and　poets）。　Secondly；　the　goal　towards　which　humanity　is　being　led　is　known　to　the　historian。　To　one　this　goal　is　the　greatness　of　the　Roman；　or　the　Spanish；　or　the　French　state；　for　another；　it　is　freedom；　equality；　a　certain　sort　of　civilisation　in　a　little　corner　of　the　world　called　Europe。
In　1789　there　was　a　ferment　in　Paris：　it　grew　and　spread；　and　found　expression　in　the　movement　of　peoples　from　west　to　east。　Several　times　that　movement　is　made　to　the　east；　and　comes　into　collision　with　a　counter…movement　from　east　westwards。　In　the　year　1812　it　reaches　its　furthest　limit；　Moscow；　and　then；　with　a　remarkable　symmetry；　the　counter…movement　follows　from　east　to　west；　drawing　with　it；　like　the　first　movement；　the　peoples　of　Central　Europe。　The　counter…movement　reaches　the　starting…point　of　the　first　movement—Paris—and　subsides。
During　this　period　of　twenty　years　an　immense　number　of　fields　are　not　tilled；　houses　are　burned；　trade　changes　its　direction；　millions　of　men　grow　poor　and　grow　rich；　and　change　their　habitations；　and　millions　of　Christians；　professing　the　law　of　love；　murder　one　another。
What　does　all　this　mean？　What　did　all　this　proceed　from？　What　induced　these　people　to　burn　houses　and　to　murder　their　fellow…creatures？　What　were　the　causes　of　these　events？　What　force　compelled　men　to　act　in　this　fashion？　These　are　the　involuntary　and　most　legitimate　questions　that；　in　all　good　faith；　humanity　puts　to　itself　when　it　stumbles　on　memorials　and　traditions　of　that　past　age　of　restlessness。
To　answer　these　questions　the　common…sense　of　humanity　turns　to　the　science　of　history；　the　object　of　which　is　the　self…knowledge　of　nations　and　of　humanity。
Had　history　retained　the　view　of　the　ancients；　it　would　have　said：　The　Deity；　to　reward　or　to　punish　His　People；　gave　Napoleon　power；　and　guided　his　will　for　the　attainment　of　His　own　divine　ends。　And　that　answer　would　have　been　complete　and　clear。　One　might　believe　or　disbelieve　in　the　divine　significance　of　Napoleon。　For　one　who　believed　in　it；　all　the　history　of　that　period　would　have　been　comprehensible；　and　there　would　have　been　nothing　contradictory　in　it。
But　modern　history　cannot　answer　in　that　way。　Science　does　not　accept　the　view　of　the　ancients　as　to　the　direct　participation　of　the　Deity　in　the　affairs　of　mankind；　and　therefore　must　give　other　answers。
Modern　history；　in　answer　to　these　questions；　says：　‘‘You　want　to　know　what　this　movement　means；　what　it　arose　from；　and　what　force　produced　these　events？　Listen。
‘‘Louis　XIV。　was　a　very　haughty　and　self…willed　man；　he　had　such　and　such　mistresses；　and　such　and　such　ministers；　and　he　governed　France　badly。　Louis’s　successors；　too；　were　weak　men；　and　they；　too；　governed　France　badly。　And　they　had　such　and　such　favourites；　and　such　and　such　mistresses。　Moreover；　there　were　certain　men　writing　books　at　this　period。　At　the　end　of　the　eighteenth　century　there　were　some　two　dozen　men　in　Paris　who　began　to　talk　all　about　men　being　equal　and　free。　This　led　people　all　over　France　to　fall　to　hewing　and　hacking　at　each　other。　These　people　killed　the　king　and　a　great　many　more。　At　that　time　there　was　in　France　a　man　of　genius—Napoleon。　He　conquered　every　one　everywhere；　that　is；　he　killed　a　great　many　people；　because　he　was　a　very　great　genius。　And　for　some　reason　he　went　to　kill　the　Africans；　and　killed　them　so　well；　and　was　so　cunning　and　clever；　that　on　returning　to　France　he　bade　every　one　obey　him。　And　they　all　did　obey　him。　After　being　made　Emperor　he　went　to　kill　people　in　Italy；　Austria；　and　Prussia。　And　there；　too；　he　killed　a　great　many。　In　Russia　there　was　an　Emperor；　Alexander；　who　was　resolved　to　re…establish　order　in　Europe；　and　so　made　war　with　Napoleon。　But　in　1807　he　suddenly　made　friends　with　him；　and　in　1811　he　quarrelled　again；　and　again　they　began　killing　a　great　many　people。　And　Napoleon　took　six　hundred　thousand　men　into　Russia；　and　conquered　Moscow；　and　then　he　suddenly　ran　away　out　of　Moscow；　and　then　the　Emperor　Alexander；　aided　by　the　counsels　of　Stein　and　others；　united　Europe　for　defence　against　the　destroyer　of　her　peace。　All　Napoleon’s　allies　suddenly　became　his　enemies；　and　the　united　army　advanced　against　the　fresh　troops　raised　by　Napoleon。　The　allies　vanquished　Napoleon；　entered　Paris；　forced　Napoleon　to　abdicate；　and　sent　him　to　the　island　of　Elba；　not　depriving　him；　however；　of　the　dignity　of　Emperor；　showing　him；　in　fact；　every　respect；　although　five　years　before；　and　one　year　later；　he　was　regarded　by　every　one　as　a　brigand　outside　the　pale　of　the　law。　And　Louis　XVIII。；　who；　till　then；　had　been　a　laughing…stock　to　the　French　and　the　allies；　began　to　reign。　Napoleon　shed　tears　before　the　Old　Guard；　abdicated　the　throne；　and　went　into　exile。　Then　the　subtle；　political　people　and　diplomatists　（conspicuous　among　them　Talleyrand；　who　succeeded　in　sitting　down　in　a　particular　chair　before　any　one　else；　and　thereby　extended　the　frontiers　of　France）　had　conversations　together　at　Vienna；　and　by　these　conversations　made　nations　happy　or　unhappy。　All　at　once　the　diplomatists　and　monarchs　all　but　quarrelled；　they　were　on　the　point　of　again　commanding　their　armies　to　kill　one　another；　but　at　that　time　Napoleon　entered　France　with　a　battalion；　and　the　French；　who　had　been　hating　him；　at　once　submitted　to　him。　But　the　allied　monarchs　were　angry　at　this；　and　again　went　to　war　with　the　French。　And　the　genius；　Napoleon；　was　conquered；　and　suddenly　recognising　that　he　was　a　brigand；　they　took　him　to　the　island　of　St。　Helena。　And　on　that　rock　the　exile；　parted　from　the　friends　of　his　heart；　and　from　his　beloved　France；　died　a　lingering　death；　and　bequeathed　all　his　great　deeds　to　posterity。　And　in　Europe　the　reaction　followed；　and　all　the　sovereigns　began　oppressing　their　subjects　again。’’
It　would　be　quite　a　mistake　to　suppose　that　this　is　mockery—a　caricature　of　historical　descriptions。　On　the　contrary；　it　is　a　softened…down　picture　of　the　contradictory　and　random　answers；　that　are　no　answers；　given　by　all　history；　from　the　compilers　of　memoirs　and　of　histories　of　separate　states　to　general　histories；　and　the　new　sort　of　histories　of　the　culture　of　that　period。
What　is　strange　and　comic　in　these　answers　is　due　to　the　fact　that　modern　history　is　like　a　deaf　man　answering　questions　which　no　one　has　asked　him。
If　the　aim　of　history　is　the　description　of　the　movement　of　humanity　and　of　nations；　the　first　question　which　must　be　answered；　or　all　the　rest　remains　unintelligible；　is　the　following：　What　force　moves　nations？　To　meet　this　question　modern　history　carefully　relates　that　Napoleon　was　a　very　great　genius；　and　that　Louis　XIV。　was　very　haughty；　or　that　certain　writers　wrote　certain　books。
All　this　may　very　well　be　so；　and　humanity　is　ready　to　acquiesce　in　it；　but　it　is　not　what　it　asks　about。　All　that　might　be　very　interesting　if　we　recognised　a　divine　power；　based　on　itself　and　always　alike；　guiding　its　peoples　through　Napoleons；　Louis’；　and　writers；　but　we　do　not　acknowledge　such　a　power；　and　therefore　before　talking　about　Napoleons；　and　Louis’；　and　great　writers；　we　must　show　the　connection　existing　between　those　persons　and　the　movement　of　the　nations。　If　another　force　is　put　in　the　place　of　the　divine　power；　then　it　should　be　explained　what　that　force　consists　of；　since　it　is　precisely　in　that　force　that　the　whole　interest　of　history　lies。
History　seems　to　assume　that　this　force　is　taken　for　granted　of　itself；　and　is　known　to　every　one。　But　in　despite　of　every　desire　to　admit　this　new　force　as　known；　any　one　who　reads　through　very　many　historical　works　cannot　but　doubt　whether　this　new　force；　so　differently　understood　by　the　historians　themselves；　is　perfectly　well　known　to　every　one。


Chapter　2
WHAT　is　the　force　that　moves　nations？
Biographical　historians；　and　historians　writing　of　separate　nations；　understand　this　force　as　a　power　residing　in　heroes　and　sovereigns。　According　to　their　narratives；　the　events　were　entirely　due　to　the　wills　of　Napoleons；　of　Alexanders；　or；　generally　speaking；　of　those　persons　who　form　the　subject　of　historical　memoirs。　The　ans