darwin and modern science-第5节

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ion　of　a　blade　of　grass　comprehensible；　according　to　natural　laws　ordained　by　no　intention。〃　　As　Prof。　Haeckel　finely　observes；　Darwin　rose　up　as　Kant's　Newton。　　（Mr　Alfred　Russel　Wallace　writes：　　〃We　claim　for　Darwin　that　he　is　the　Newton　of　natural　history；　and　that；　just　so　surely　as　that　the　discovery　and　demonstration　by　Newton　of　the　law　of　gravitation　established　order　in　place　of　chaos　and　laid　a　sure　foundation　for　all　future　study　of　the　starry　heavens；　so　surely　has　Darwin；　by　his　discovery　of　the　law　of　natural　selection　and　his　demonstration　of　the　great　principle　of　the　preservation　of　useful　variations　in　the　struggle　for　life；　not　only　thrown　a　flood　of　light　on　the　process　of　development　of　the　whole　organic　world；　but　also　established　a　firm　foundation　for　all　future　study　of　nature〃　（〃Darwinism〃；　London；　1889；　page　9）。　　See　also　Prof。　Karl　Pearson's　〃Grammar　of　Science〃　（2nd　edition）；　London；　1900；　page　32。　　See　Osborn；　op。　cit。　　Page　100。））

The　scientific　renaissance　brought　a　wealth　of　fresh　impressions　and　some　freedom　from　the　tyranny　of　tradition；　and　the　twofold　stimulus　stirred　the　speculative　activity　of　a　great　variety　of　men　from　old　Claude　Duret　of　Moulins；　of　whose　weird　transformism　（1609）　Dr　Henry　de　Varigny　（〃Experimental　Evolution〃。　　London；　1892。　　Chap。　1。　page　14。）　gives　us　a　glimpse；　to　Lorenz　Oken　（1799…1851）　whose　writings　are　such　mixtures　of　sense　and　nonsense　that　some　regard　him　as　a　far…seeing　prophet　and　others　as　a　fatuous　follower　of　intellectual　will…o'…the…wisps。　　Similarly；　for　De　Maillet；　Maupertuis；　Diderot；　Bonnet；　and　others；　we　must　agree　with　Professor　Osborn　that　they　were　not　actually　in　the　main　Evolution　movement。　　Some　have　been　included　in　the　roll　of　honour　on　very　slender　evidence；　Robinet　for　instance；　whose　evolutionism　seems　to　us　extremely　dubious。　　（See　J。　Arthur　Thomson；　〃The　Science　of　Life〃。　　London；　1899。　　Chap。　XVI。　〃Evolution　of　Evolution　Theory〃。）

The　first　naturalist　to　give　a　broad　and　concrete　expression　to　the　evolutionist　doctrine　of　descent　was　Buffon　（1707…1788）；　but　it　is　interesting　to　recall　the　fact　that　his　contemporary　Linnaeus　（1707…1778）；　protagonist　of　the　counter…doctrine　of　the　fixity　of　species　（See　Carus　Sterne　（Ernest　Krause）；　〃Die　allgemeine　Weltanschauung　in　ihrer　historischen　Entwickelung〃。　　Stuttgart；　1889。　　Chapter　entitled　〃Bestandigkeit　oder　Veranderlichkeit　der　Naturwesen〃。）；　went　the　length　of　admitting　（in　1762）　that　new　species　might　arise　by　intercrossing。　　Buffon's　position　among　the　pioneers　of　the　evolution…doctrine　is　weakened　by　his　habit　of　vacillating　between　his　own　conclusions　and　the　orthodoxy　of　the　Sorbonne；　but　there　is　no　doubt　that　he　had　a　firm　grasp　of　the　general　idea　of　〃l'enchainement　des　etres。〃

Erasmus　Darwin　（1731…1802）；　probably　influenced　by　Buffon；　was　another　firm　evolutionist；　and　the　outline　of　his　argument　in　the　〃Zoonomia〃　（〃Zoonomia；　or　the　Laws　of　Organic　Life〃；　2　vols。　　London；　1794；　Osborn　op。　cit。　page　145。）　might　serve　in　part　at　least　to…day。　　〃When　we　revolve　in　our　minds　the　metamorphoses　of　animals；　as　from　the　tadpole　to　the　frog；　secondly；　the　changes　produced　by　artificial　cultivation；　as　in　the　breeds　of　horses；　dogs；　and　sheep；　thirdly；　the　changes　produced　by　conditions　of　climate　and　of　season；　as　in　the　sheep　of　warm　climates　being　covered　with　hair　instead　of　wool；　and　the　hares　and　partridges　of　northern　climates　becoming　white　in　winter：　　when；　further；　we　observe　the　changes　of　structure　produced　by　habit；　as　seen　especially　in　men　of　different　occupations；　or　the　changes　produced　by　artificial　mutilation　and　prenatal　influences；　as　in　the　crossing　of　species　and　production　of　monsters；　fourth；　when　we　observe　the　essential　unity　of　plan　in　all　warm…blooded　animals；we　are　led　to　conclude　that　they　have　been　alike　produced　from　a　similar　living　filament〃。。。〃From　thus　meditating　upon　the　minute　portion　of　time　in　which　many　of　the　above　changes　have　been　produced；　would　it　be　too　bold　to　imagine；　in　the　great　length　of　time　since　the　earth　began　to　exist；　perhaps　millions　of　years　before　the　commencement　of　the　history　of　mankind；　that　all　warm…blooded　animals　have　arisen　from　one　living　filament？〃。。。〃This　idea　of　the　gradual　generation　of　all　things　seems　to　have　been　as　familiar　to　the　ancient　philosophers　as　to　the　modern　ones；　and　to　have　given　rise　to　the　beautiful　hieroglyphic　figure　of　the　proton　oon；　or　first　great　egg；　produced　by　night；　that　is；　whose　origin　is　involved　in　obscurity；　and　animated　by　Eros；　that　is；　by　Divine　Love；　from　whence　proceeded　all　things　which　exist。〃

Lamarck　（1744…1829）　seems　to　have　become　an　evolutionist　independently　of　Erasmus　Darwin's　influence；　though　the　parallelism　between　them　is　striking。　　He　probably　owed　something　to　Buffon；　but　he　developed　his　theory　along　a　different　line。　　Whatever　view　be　held　in　regard　to　that　theory　there　is　no　doubt　that　Lamarck　was　a　thorough…going　evolutionist。　　Professor　Haeckel　speaks　of　the　〃Philosophie　Zoologique〃　as　〃the　first　connected　and　thoroughly　logical　exposition　of　the　theory　of　descent。〃　　（See　Alpheus　S。　Packard；　〃Lamarck；　the　Founder　of　Evolution；　His　Life　and　Work；　with　Translations　of　his　writings　on　Organic　Evolution〃。　　London；　1901。）

Besides　the　three　old　masters；　as　we　may　call　them；　Buffon；　Erasmus　Darwin；　and　Lamarck；　there　were　other　quite　convinced　pre…Darwinian　evolutionists。　　The　historian　of　the　theory　of　descent　must　take　account　of　Treviranus　whose　〃Biology　or　Philosophy　of　Animate　Nature〃　is　full　of　evolutionary　suggestions；　of　Etienne　Geoffroy　St　Hilaire；　who　in　1830；　before　the　French　Academy　of　Sciences；　fought　with　Cuvier；　the　fellow…worker　of　his　youth；　an　intellectual　duel　on　the　question　of　descent；　of　Goethe；　one　of　the　founders　of　morphology　and　the　greatest　poet　of　Evolutionwho；　in　his　eighty…first　year；　heard　the　tidings　of　Geoffroy　St　Hilaire's　defeat　with　an　interest　which　transcended　the　political　anxieties　of　the　time；　and　of　many　others　who　had　gained　with　more　or　less　confidence　and　clearness　a　new　outlook　on　Nature。　　It　will　be　remembered　that　Darwin　refers　to　thirty…four　more　or　less　evolutionist　authors　in　his　Historical　Sketch；　and　the　list　might　be　added　to。　　Especially　when　we　come　near　to　1858　do　the　numbers　increase；　and　one　of　the　most　remarkable；　as　also　most　independent　champions　of　the　evolution…idea　before　that　date　was　Herbert　Spencer；　who　not　only　marshalled　the　arguments　in　a　very　forcible　way　in　1852；　but　applied　the　formula　in　detail　in　his　〃Principles　of　Psychology〃　in　1855。　　（See　Edward　Clodd；　〃Pioneers　of　Evolution〃；　London；　page　161；　1897。）

It　is　right　and　proper　that　we　should　shake　ourselves　free　from　all　creationist　appreciations　of　Darwin；　and　that　we　should　recognise　the　services　of　pre…Darwinian　evolutionists　who　helped　to　make　the　time　ripe；　yet　one　cannot　help　feeling　that　the　citation　of　them　is　apt　to　suggest　two　fallacies。　　It　may　suggest　that　Darwin　simply　entered　into　the　labours　of　his　predecessors；　whereas；　as　a　matter　of　fact；　he　knew　very　little　about　them　till　after　he　had　been　for　years　at　work。　　To　write；　as　Samuel　Butler　did；　〃Buffon　planted；　Erasmus　Darwin　and　Lamarck　watered；　but　it　was　Mr　Darwin　who　said　'That　fruit　is　ripe；'　and　shook　it　into　his　lap〃。。。seems　to　us　a　quite　misleading　version　of　the　facts　of　the　case。　　The　second　fallacy　which　the　historical　citation　is　a　little　apt　to　suggest　is　that　the　filiation　of　ideas　is　a　simple　problem。　　On　the　contrary；　the　history　of　an　idea；　like　the　pedigree　of　an　organism；　is　often　very　intricate；　and　the　evolution　of　the　evolution…idea　is　bound　up　with　the　whole　progress　of　the　world。　　Thus　in　order　to　interpret　Darwin's　clear　formulation　of　the　idea　of　organic　evolution　and　his　convincing　presentation　of　it；　we　have　to　do　more　than　go　back　to　his　immediate　predecessors；　such　as　Buffon；　Erasmus　Darwin；　and　Lamarck；　we　have　to　inquire　into　the　acceptance　of　evolutionary　conceptions　in　regard　to　other　orders　of　facts；　such　as　the　earth　and　the　solar　system　（See　Chapter　IX。　〃The　Genetic　View　of　Nature〃　in　J。T。　Merz's　〃History　of　European　Thought　in　the　Nineteenth　Century〃；　Vol。　2；　Edinburgh　and　London；　1903。）；　we　have　to　realise　how　the　growing　success　of　scientific　interpretation　along　other　lines　gave　confidence　to　those　who　refused　to　admit　that　there　was　any　domain　from　which　science　could　be　excluded　as　a　trespasser；　we　have　to　take　account　of　the　development　of　philosophical　thought；　and　even　of　theological　and　religious　movements；　we　should　also；　if　we　are　wise　enough；　consider　social　changes。　　In　short；　we　must　abandon　the　idea　that　we　can　understand　the　history　of　any　science　as　such；　without　reference　to　contemporary　evolution　in　other　departments　of　activity。

While　there　were　many　evolutionists　before　Darwin；　few　of　them　were　expert　naturalists　and　few　were　known　outside　a　small　circle；　what　was　of　much　more　importance　was　that　the　genetic　view　of　nature　was　insinuating　itself　in　regard　to　other　than　biological　orders　of　facts；　here　a　little　and　there　a　little；　and　that　the　scientific　spirit　had　ripened　since　the　days　when　Cuvier　laughed　Lamarck　out　of　court。　　How　was　it　that　Darwin　succeeded　where　others　had　failed？　　Because；　in　the　first