darwin and modern science-第48节

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laeontology；　and　maintained　the　effort　to　reform　the　classification　of　animals　and　plants　in　an　evolutionary　sense。　The　first　rough　drafts　of　pedigrees　that　were　published　in　the　〃Generelle　Morphologie〃　have　been　improved　time　after　time　in　the　ten　editions　of　my　〃Naturaliche　Schopfungsgeschichte〃　（1868…1902）。　　（English　translation；　〃The　History　of　Creation〃；　London；　1876。）　　A　sounder　basis　for　my　phyletic　hypotheses；　derived　from　a　discriminating　combination　of　the　three　great　recordsmorphology；　ontogeny；　and　palaeontologywas　provided　in　the　three　volumes　of　my　〃Systematische　Phylogenie　（Berlin；　1894…96。）　（1894　Protists　and　Plants；　1895　Vertebrates；　1896　Invertebrates）。　　In　my　〃Anthropogenie〃　（Leipzig；　1874；　5th　edition　1905。　　English　translation；　〃The　Evolution　of　Man〃；　London；　1905。）　I　endeavoured　to　employ　all　the　known　facts　of　comparative　ontogeny　（embryology）　for　the　purpose　of　completing　my　scheme　of　human　phylogeny　（evolution）。　　I　attempted　to　sketch　the　historical　development　of　each　organ　of　the　body；　beginning　with　the　most　elementary　structures　in　the　germ…layers　of　the　Gastraea。　　At　the　same　time　I　drew　up　a　corrected　statement　of　the　most　important　steps　in　the　line　of　our　ancestral　series。

At　the　fourth　International　Congress　of　Zoology　at　Cambridge　（August　26th；　1898）　I　delivered　an　address　on　〃Our　present　knowledge　of　the　Descent　of　Man。〃　　It　was　translated　into　English；　enriched　with　many　valuable　notes　and　additions；　by　my　friend　and　pupil　in　earlier　days　Dr　Hans　Gadow　（Cambridge）；　and　published　under　the　title：　　〃The　Last　Link；　our　present　knowledge　of　the　Descent　of　Man〃。　　（London；　1898。）　　The　determination　of　the　chief　animal　forms　that　occur　in　the　line　of　our　ancestry　is　there　restricted　to　thirty　types；　and　these　are　distributed　in　six　main　groups。

The　first　half　of　this　〃Progonotaxis　hominis；〃　which　has　no　support　from　fossil　evidence；　comprises　three　groups：　　（i）　Protista　（unicellular　organisms；　1…5：　　（ii）　Invertebrate　Metazoa　（Coelenteria　6…8；　Vermalia　9…　11）：　　（iii）　Monorrhine　Vertebrates　（Acrania　12…13；　Cyclostoma　14…15）。　　The　second　half；　which　is　based　on　fossil　records；　also　comprises　three　groups：　　（iv）　Palaeozoic　cold…blooded　Craniota　（Fishes　16…18；　Amphibia　19；　Reptiles　20：　　（v）　Mesozoic　Mammals　（Monotrema　21；　Marsupialia　22；　Mallotheria　23）：　　（vi）　Cenozoic　Primates　（Lemuridae　24…25；　Tailed　Apes　26…27；　Anthropomorpha　28…30）。　　An　improved　and　enlarged　edition　of　this　hypothetic　〃Progonotaxis　hominis〃　was　published　in　1908；　in　my　essay　〃Unsere　Ahnenreihe〃。　　（〃Festschrift　zur　350…jahrigen　Jubelfeier　der　Thuringer　Universitat　Jena〃。　　Jena；　1908。）

If　I　have　succeeded　in　furthering；　in　some　degree；　by　these　anthropological　works；　the　solution　of　the　great　problem　of　Man's　place　in　nature；　and　particularly　in　helping　to　trace　the　definite　stages　in　our　ancestral　series；　I　owe　the　success；　not　merely　to　the　vast　progress　that　biology　has　made　in　the　last　half　century；　but　largely　to　the　luminous　example　of　the　great　investigators　who　have　applied　themselves　to　the　problem；　with　so　much　assiduity　and　genius；　for　a　century　and　a　quarterI　mean　Goethe　and　Lamarck；　Gegenbaur　and　Huxley；　but；　above　all；　Charles　Darwin。　　It　was　the　great　genius　of　Darwin　that　first　brought　together　the　scattered　material　of　biology　and　shaped　it　into　that　symmetrical　temple　of　scientific　knowledge；　the　theory　of　descent。　　It　was　Darwin　who　put　the　crown　on　the　edifice　by　his　theory　of　natural　selection。　　Not　until　this　broad　inductive　law　was　firmly　established　was　it　possible　to　vindicate　the　special　conclusion；　the　descent　of　man　from　a　series　of　other　Vertebrates。　　By　his　illuminating　discovery　Darwin　did　more　for　anthropology　than　thousands　of　those　writers；　who　are　more　specifically　titled　anthropologists；　have　done　by　their　technical　treatises。　　We　may；　indeed；　say　that　it　is　not　merely　as　an　exact　observer　and　ingenious　experimenter；　but　as　a　distinguished　anthropologist　and　far…seeing　thinker；　that　Darwin　takes　his　place　among　the　greatest　men　of　science　of　the　nineteenth　century。

To　appreciate　fully　the　immortal　merit　of　Darwin　in　connection　with　anthropology；　we　must　remember　that　not　only　did　his　chief　work；　〃The　Origin　of　Species〃；　which　opened　up　a　new　era　in　natural　history　in　1859；　sustain　the　most　virulent　and　widespread　opposition　for　a　lengthy　period；　but　even　thirty　years　later；　when　its　principles　were　generally　recognised　and　adopted；　the　application　of　them　to　man　was　energetically　contested　by　many　high　scientific　authorities。　　Even　Alfred　Russel　Wallace；　who　discovered　the　principle　of　natural　selection　independently　in　1858；　did　not　concede　that　it　was　applicable　to　the　higher　mental　and　moral　qualities　of　man。　　Dr　Wallace　still　holds　a　spiritualist　and　dualist　view　of　the　nature　of　man；　contending　that　he　is　composed　of　a　material　frame　（descended　from　the　apes）　and　an　immortal　immaterial　soul　（infused　by　a　higher　power）。　　This　dual　conception；　moreover；　is　still　predominant　in　the　wide　circles　of　modern　theology　and　metaphysics；　and　has　the　general　and　influential　adherence　of　the　more　conservative　classes　of　society。

In　strict　contradiction　to　this　mystical　dualism；　which　is　generally　connected　with　teleology　and　vitalism；　Darwin　always　maintained　the　complete　unity　of　human　nature；　and　showed　convincingly　that　the　psychological　side　of　man　was　developed；　in　the　same　way　as　the　body；　from　the　less　advanced　soul　of　the　anthropoid　ape；　and；　at　a　still　more　remote　period；　from　the　cerebral　functions　of　the　older　vertebrates。　　The　eighth　chapter　of　the　〃Origin　of　Species〃；　which　is　devoted　to　instinct；　contains　weighty　evidence　that　the　instincts　of　animals　are　subject；　like　all　other　vital　processes；　to　the　general　laws　of　historic　development。　　The　special　instincts　of　particular　species　were　formed　by　adaptation；　and　the　modifications　thus　acquired　were　handed　on　to　posterity　by　heredity；　in　their　formation　and　preservation　natural　selection　plays　the　same　part　as　in　the　transformation　of　every　other　physiological　function。　　The　higher　moral　qualities　of　civilised　man　have　been　derived　from　the　lower　mental　functions　of　the　uncultivated　barbarians　and　savages；　and　these　in　turn　from　the　social　instincts　of　the　mammals。　　This　natural　and　monistic　psychology　of　Darwin's　was　afterwards　more　fully　developed　by　his　friend　George　Romanes　in　his　excellent　works　〃Mental　Evolution　in　Animals〃　and　〃Mental　Evolution　in　Man〃。　　（London；　1885；　1888。）

Many　valuable　and　most　interesting　contributions　to　this　monistic　psychology　of　man　were　made　by　Darwin　in　his　fine　work　on　〃The　Descent　of　Man　and　Selection　in　Relation　to　Sex〃；　and　again　in　his　supplementary　work；　〃The　Expression　of　the　Emotions　in　Man　and　Animals〃。　　To　understand　the　historical　development　of　Darwin's　anthropology　one　must　read　his　life　and　the　introduction　to　〃The　Descent　of　Man〃。　　From　the　moment　that　he　was　convinced　of　the　truth　of　the　principle　of　descentthat　is　to　say；　from　his　thirtieth　year；　in　1838he　recognised　clearly　that　man　could　not　be　excluded　from　its　range。　　He　recognised　as　a　logical　necessity　the　important　conclusion　that　〃man　is　the　co…descendant　with　other　species　of　some　ancient；　lower；　and　extinct　form。〃　　For　many　years　he　gathered　notes　and　arguments　in　support　of　this　thesis；　and　for　the　purpose　of　showing　the　probable　line　of　man's　ancestry。　　But　in　the　first　edition　of　〃The　Origin　of　Species〃　（1859）　he　restricted　himself　to　the　single　line；　that　by　this　work　〃light　would　be　thrown　on　the　origin　of　man　and　his　history。〃　　In　the　fifty　years　that　have　elapsed　since　that　time　the　science　of　the　origin　and　nature　of　man　has　made　astonishing　progress；　and　we　are　now　fairly　agreed　in　a　monistic　conception　of　nature　that　regards　the　whole　universe；　including　man；　as　a　wonderful　unity；　governed　by　unalterable　and　eternal　laws。　　In　my　philosophical　book　〃Die　Weltratsel〃　（1899）　（〃The　Riddle　of　the　Universe〃；　London；　1900。）　and　in　the　supplementary　volume　〃Die　Lebenswunder〃　（1904）　〃The　Wonders　of　Life〃；　London；　1904。）；　I　have　endeavoured　to　show　that　this　pure　monism　is　securely　established；　and　that　the　admission　of　the　all…powerful　rule　of　the　same　principle　of　evolution　throughout　the　universe　compels　us　to　formulate　a　single　supreme　lawthe　all…embracing　〃Law　of　Substance；〃　or　the　united　laws　of　the　constancy　of　matter　and　the　conservation　of　energy。　　We　should　never　have　reached　this　supreme　general　conception　if　Charles　Darwina　〃monistic　philosopher〃　in　the　true　sense　of　the　wordhad　not　prepared　the　way　by　his　theory　of　descent　by　natural　selection；　and　crowned　the　great　work　of　his　life　by　the　association　of　this　theory　with　a　naturalistic　anthropology。


IX。　　SOME　PRIMITIVE　THEORIES　OF　THE　ORIGIN　OF　MAN。

By　J。G。　FRAZER。　Fellow　of　Trinity　College；　Cambridge。

On　a　bright　day　in　late　autumn　a　good　many　years　ago　I　had　ascended　the　hill　of　Panopeus　in　Phocis　to　examine　the　ancient　Greek　fortifications　which　crest　its　brow。　　It　was　the　first　of　November；　but　the　weather　was　very　hot；　and　when　my　work　among　the　ruins　was　done；　I　was　glad　to　rest　under　the　shade　of　a　clump　of　fine　holly…oaks；　to　inhale　the　sweet　refreshing　perfume　of　the　wild　thyme　which　scented　all　the　air；　and　to　enjoy　the　distant　prospects；　ric