darwin and modern science-第145节

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d　the　processes　by　which　nature；　in　the　absence　of　design；　obtains　analogous　results　in　the　differentiation　of　types。　　As　soon　as　the　importance　of　artificial　selection　in　the　transformation　of　species　of　animals　was　understood；　reflection　naturally　turned　to　the　human　species；　and　the　question　arose；　How　far　do　men　observe；　in　connection　with　themselves；　those　laws　of　which　they　make　practical　application　in　the　case　of　animals？　　Here　we　come　upon　one　of　the　ideas　which　guided　the　researches　of　Galton；　Darwin's　cousin。　　The　author　of　〃Inquiries　into　Human　Faculty　and　its　Development〃　（〃Inquiries　into　Human　Faculty〃；　pages　1；　2；　3　sq。；　London；　1883。）；　has　often　expressed　his　surprise　that；　considering　all　the　precautions　taken；　for　example；　in　the　breeding　of　horses；　none　whatever　are　taken　in　the　breeding　of　the　human　species。　　It　seems　to　be　forgotten　that　the　species　suffers　when　the　〃fittest〃　are　not　able　to　perpetuate　their　type。　　Ritchie；　in　his　〃Darwinism　and　Politics〃　（〃Darwinism　and　Politics〃　pages　9；　22；　London；　1889。）　reminds　us　of　Darwin's　remark　that　the　institution　of　the　peerage　might　be　defended　on　the　ground　that　peers；　owing　to　the　prestige　they　enjoy；　are　enabled　to　select　as　wives　〃the　most　beautiful　and　charming　women　out　of　the　lower　ranks。〃　　（〃Life　and　Letters　of　Charles　Darwin〃；　II。　page　385。）　　But；　says　Galton；　it　is　as　often　as　not　〃heiresses〃　that　they　pick　out；　and　birth　statistics　seem　to　show　that　these　are　either　less　robust　or　less　fecund　than　others。　　The　truth　is　that　considerations　continue　to　preside　over　marriage　which　are　entirely　foreign　to　the　improvement　of　type；　much　as　this　is　a　condition　of　general　progress。　　Hence　the　importance　of　completing　Odin's　and　De　Candolle's　statistics　which　are　designed　to　show　how　characters　are　incorporated　in　organisms；　how　they　are　transmitted；　how　lost；　and　according　to　what　law　eugenic　elements　depart　from　the　mean　or　return　to　it。

But　thinkers　do　not　always　content　themselves　with　undertaking　merely　the　minute　researches　which　the　idea　of　Selection　suggests。　　They　are　eager　to　defend　this　or　that　thesis。　　In　the　name　of　this　idea　certain　social　anthropologists　have　recast　the　conception　of　the　process　of　civilisation；　and　have　affirmed　that　Social　Selection　generally　works　against　the　trend　of　Natural　Selection。　　Vacher　de　Lapougefollowing　up　an　observation　by　Broca　on　the　pointenumerates　the　various　institutions；　or　customs；　such　as　the　celibacy　of　priests　and　military　conscription；　which　cause　elimination　or　sterilisation　of　the　bearers　of　certain　superior　qualities；　intellectual　or　physical。　　In　a　more　general　way　he　attacks　the　democratic　movement；　a　movement；　as　P。　Bourget　says；　which　is　〃anti…physical〃　and　contrary　to　the　natural　laws　of　progress；　though　it　has　been　inspired　〃by　the　dreams　of　that　most　visionary　of　all　centuries；　the　eighteenth。〃　　（V。　de　Lapouge；　〃Les　Selections　sociales〃；　page　259；　Paris；　1896。）　　The　〃Equality〃　which　levels　down　and　mixes　（justly　condemned；　he　holds；　by　the　Comte　de　Gobineau）；　prevents　the　aristocracy　of　the　blond　dolichocephales　from　holding　the　position　and　playing　the　part　which；　in　the　interests　of　all；　should　belong　to　them。　　Otto　Ammon；　in　his　〃Natural　Selection　in　Man〃；　and　in　〃The　Social　Order　and　its　Natural　Bases〃　（〃Die　naturliche　Auslese　beim　Menschen〃；　Jena；　1893；　〃Die　Gesellschaftsordnung　und　ihre　naturlichen　Grundlagen〃。　　〃Entwurf　einer　Sozialanthropologie〃；　Jena；　1896。）；　defended　analogous　doctrines　in　Germany；　setting　the　curve　representing　frequency　of　talent　over　against　that　of　income；　he　attempted　to　show　that　all　democratic　measures　which　aim　at　promoting　the　rise　in　the　social　scale　of　the　talented　are　useless；　if　not　dangerous；　that　they　only　increase　the　panmixia；　to　the　great　detriment　of　the　species　and　of　society。

Among　the　aristocratic　theories　which　Darwinism　has　thus　inspired　we　must　reckon　that　of　Nietzsche。　　It　is　well　known　that　in　order　to　complete　his　philosophy　he　added　biological　studies　to　his　philological；　and　more　than　once　in　his　remarks　upon　the　〃Wille　zur　Macht〃　he　definitely　alludes　to　Darwin；　though　it　must　be　confessed　that　it　is　generally　in　order　to　proclaim　the　in　sufficiency　of　the　processes　by　which　Darwin　seeks　to　explain　the　genesis　of　species。　　Nevertheless；　Nietzsche's　mind　is　completely　possessed　by　an　ideal　of　Selection。　　He；　too；　has　a　horror　of　panmixia。　　The　naturalists'　conception　of　〃the　fittest〃　is　joined　by　him　to　that　of　the　〃hero〃　of　romance　to　furnish　a　basis　for　his　doctrine　of　the　Superman。　　Let　us　hasten　to　add；　moreover；　that　at　the　very　moment　when　support　was　being　sought　in　the　theory　of　Selection　for　the　various　forms　of　the　aristocratic　doctrine；　those　same　forms　were　being　battered　down　on　another　side　by　means　of　that　very　theory。　　Attention　was　drawn　to　the　fact　that　by　virtue　of　the　laws　which　Darwin　himself　had　discovered　isolation　leads　to　etiolation。　　There　is　a　risk　that　the　privilege　which　withdraws　the　privileged　elements　of　Society　from　competition　will　cause　them　to　degenerate。　　In　fact；　Jacoby　in　his　〃Studies　in　Selection；　in　connexion　with　Heredity　in　Man〃；　（〃Etudes　sur　la　Selection　dans　ses　rapports　avec　l'heredite　chez　l'homme〃；　Paris；　page　481；　1881。）；　concludes　that　〃sterility；　mental　debility；　premature　death　and；　finally；　the　extinction　of　the　stock　were　not　specially　and　exclusively　the　fate　of　sovereign　dynasties；　all　privileged　classes；　all　families　in　exclusively　elevated　positions　share　the　fate　of　reigning　families；　although　in　a　minor　degree　and　in　direct　proportion　to　the　loftiness　of　their　social　standing。　　From　the　mass　of　human　beings　spring　individuals；　families；　races；　which　tend　to　raise　themselves　above　the　common　level；　painfully　they　climb　the　rugged　heights；　attain　the　summits　of　power；　of　wealth；　of　intelligence；　of　talent；　and　then；　no　sooner　are　they　there　than　they　topple　down　and　disappear　in　gulfs　of　mental　and　physical　degeneracy。〃　　The　demographical　researches　of　Hansen　（〃Die　drei　Bevolkerungsstufen〃；　Munich；　1889。）　（following　up　and　completing　Dumont's）　tended；　indeed；　to　show　that　urban　as　well　as　feudal　aristocracies；　burgher　classes　as　well　as　noble　castes；　were　liable　to　become　effete。　　Hence　it　might　well　be　concluded　that　the　democratic　movement；　operating　as　it　does　to　break　down　class　barriers；　was　promoting　instead　of　impeding　human　selection。

So　we　see　that；　according　to　the　point　of　view；　very　different　conclusions　have　been　drawn　from　the　application　of　the　Darwinian　idea　of　Selection　to　human　society。　　Darwin's　other　central　idea；　closely　bound　up　with　this；　that；　namely；　of　the　〃struggle　for　existence〃　also　has　been　diversely　utilised。　　But　discussion　has　chiefly　centered　upon　its　signification。　　And　while　some　endeavour　to　extend　its　application　to　everything；　we　find　others　trying　to　limit　its　range。　　The　conception　of　a　〃struggle　for　existence〃　has　in　the　present　day　been　taken　up　into　the　social　sciences　from　natural　science；　and　adopted。　　But　originally　it　descended　from　social　science　to　natural。　　Darwin's　law　is；　as　he　himself　said；　only　Malthus'　law　generalised　and　extended　to　the　animal　world：　　a　growing　disproportion　between　the　supply　of　food　and　the　number　of　the　living　is　the　fatal　order　whence　arises　the　necessity　of　universal　struggle；　a　struggle　which；　to　the　great　advantage　of　the　species；　allows　only　the　best　equipped　individuals　to　survive。　　Nature　is　regarded　by　Huxley　as　an　immense　arena　where　all　living　beings　are　gladiators。　　（〃Evolution　and　Ethics〃；　page　200；　〃Collected　Essays〃；　Vol。　IX；　London；　1894。）

Such　a　generalisation　was　well　adapted　to　feed　the　stream　of　pessimistic　thought；　and　it　furnished　to　the　apologists　of　war；　in　particular；　new　arguments；　weighted　with　all　the　authority　which　in　these　days　attaches　to　scientific　deliverances。　　If　people　no　longer　say；　as　Bonald　did；　and　Moltke　after　him；　that　war　is　a　providential　fact；　they　yet　lay　stress　on　the　point　that　it　is　a　natural　fact。　　To　the　peace　party　Dragomirov's　objection　is　urged　that　its　attempts　are　contrary　to　the　fundamental　laws　of　nature；　and　that　no　sea　wall　can　hold　against　breakers　that　come　with　such　gathered　force。

But　in　yet　another　quarter　Darwinism　was　represented　as　opposed　to　philanthropic　intervention。　　The　defenders　of　the　orthodox　political　economy　found　in　it　support　for　their　tenets。　　Since　in　the　organic　world　universal　struggle　is　the　condition　of　progress；　it　seemed　obvious　that　free　competition　must　be　allowed　to　reign　unchecked　in　the　economic　world。　Attempts　to　curb　it　were　in　the　highest　degree　imprudent。　　The　spirit　of　Liberalism　here　seemed　in　conformity　with　the　trend　of　nature：　　in　this　respect；　at　least；　contemporary　naturalism；　offspring　of　the　discoveries　of　the　nineteenth　century；　brought　reinforcements　to　the　individualist　doctrine；　begotten　of　the　speculations　of　the　eighteenth：　　but　only；　it　appeared；　to　turn　mankind　away　for　ever　from　humanitarian　dreams。　　Would　those　whom　such　conclusions　repelled　be　content　to　oppose　to　nature's　imperatives　only　the　protests　of　the　heart？　　There　were　some　who　declared；　like　Brunetiere；　that　the　laws　in　question；　valid　though　they　might　be　for　the　animal　kingdom；　were　not　applicable　to　the　human。　　And　so　a　re