the ultimate standard of value-第4节

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s　again　consists；　in　part；　of　interest　and　wages　of　spinners；　and　in　part；　of　the　money　expended　upon　consumption　and　durable　goods；　say　the　wool　consumed。　　　　　　It　is　manifest　that　the　analysis　may　be　continued　in　this　way　until　finally　the　money　cost　of　every　single　stage　of　production　is　resolved　into　interest　and　wages。　In　so　far　as　the　price　of　the　finished　product　or　of　the　intermediate　products　（cloth；　yarn；　wool；　etc。）；　actually　conform　to　their　money　cost　of　production；　they　cannot　fail；　in　the　end；　to　coincide　with　the　total　sum　of　the　interest　and　wages　expended　in　their　production。　Or　what　is　the　same　thing；　they　will　agree　with　the　total　outlay　of　the　original　elements　of　production…labor　and　abstinence…rated　according　to　their　value　or　price。　　　　　　The　primary　outlay　in　production；　especially　the　labor；　to　whose　consideration　we　will；　for　the　sake　of　brevity；　confine　ourselves；　can；　as　we　know；　be　measured　by　other　scale　or　standards。　　　　　　If　we　attempt　to　verify　the　law　of　cost；　with　reference　to　these　other　methods　of　measuring　costs；　we　soon　come　to　grief。　　　　　　It　is　very　clear；　for　example；　that　the　〃law　of　cost；〃　in　the　sense　that　the　price　tends　to　conform　to　the　quantity　or　duration　of　the　labor　expended；　will　not　hold　good。　To　prove　this；　we　need　only　advert　to　the　simple　fact　that　the　product　of　a　day's　labor　of　a　machinist　or　cabinetmaker　is　much　higher　in　value　than　the　product　of　a　day's　labor　of　an　ordinary　ditch…digger。　This　holds　good；　not　only　for　the　difference　between　skilled　and　unskilled　labor；　but　also　for　the　less　pronounced　differences　that　exist　between　the　various　groups　or　grade　of　common　labor。　The　well…known　doctrine　of　the　socialists；　which　bases　all　value　upon　the　quantity　of　labor　expended；　must　either　do　violence　to　the　facts　or　be　untrue　to　itself；　and　this　entirely　independent　of　the　fact　that　it　ignore　the　cost　element…abstinence。　When；　for　example；　Marx　concedes　that　skilled　labor　must　be　translated　into　terms　of　common　average　labor；　and　so；　for　the　purposes　of　estimating　cost；　must　be　regarded　as　some　multiple　of　this　common　average　labor；　he　is　only　verbally　faithful　to　the　proposition　that　the　duration　of　labor　is　the　true　measure　of　cost。　As　a　matter　of　fact；　he　makes；　the　value　of　the　labor　expended　the　measure　of　the　cost。　　　　　　Our　investigation　becomes　far　more　difficult　when　we　come　to　consider　the　fourth　of　the　above　enumerated　meanings　of　the　word　cost；　this　meaning　understands　by　the　word　cost；　the　sum　of　the　pains　or　disutilities　which　the　laborer　must　endure　in　production。　This　brings　us　to　the　cardinal　point　of　the　whole　question；　a　point；　however；　which　require　the　most　careful　investigation。　　　　　　It　is　quite　conceivable　that　the　correspondence　which　we　have　already　noted　between　the　value　of　freely　reproducible　goods　and　their　synchronously　reckoned　cost；　and　again　between　that　value　and　the　value　of　the　labor　expended；　may　extend　to　a　third　member。　In　this　case　the　law　of　cost　would　be　true　in　a　threefold　sense。　To　establish　this　it　would　be　only　necessary　to　show；　that　the　value　of　the　labor　corresponds　with　reasonable　accuracy　to　the　amount　of　pain　that　the　laborer　endure。　　　　　　Such　a　correspondence　actually　occurs　under　a　certain　definite　assumption。　This　assumption　depends　upon　the　facts；　first；　that　the　pain　of　labor　increases　with　its　duration；　and　second；　that　the　labor　is　continued　until　the　pain　of　the　last　increment　of　labor　（Arbeitstheilchen）；　say　the　last　quarter　of　an　hour；　is　in　exact　equilibrium　with　the　marginal　utility　of　the　product　of　that　final　increment　of　labor。　In　this　event　we　have　here　a　common　rendezvous　for　our　several　items　　the　utility　of　the　product；　the　pain　endured　by　the　laborer；　the　value　of　the　labor；　and　finally　the　value　of　the　product。　　　　　　Let　us　illustrate　this　by　an　example。　We　will　take　a　man　engaged　in　one　of　the　ordinary　trades；　say　a　cabinetmaker　or　a　locksmith。　A　certain　amount　of　money；　say　five　cents；　which　he　obtains　for　a　quarter　of　an　hour's　labor；　has　for　him　a　definite　value。　This　is　determined　by　its　marginal　utility；　or　by　the　importance　of　the　last　need　which　he　is　in　a　position　to　satisfy　through　the　outlay　of　five　cents。　Now；　according　to　well…known　principle；　about　which　my　English　and　American　colleague　and　myself　are　in　entire　agreement；（16*）　this　marginal　utility　will　be　smaller；　as　the　daily　pay　of　the　laborer　increases。　It　will；　for　instance；　be　smaller　when　the　laborer　receive　two　dollars　and　forty　cents　for　twelve　hours　of　work；　than　when　he　receives　one　dollar　and　sixty　cents　for　eight　hours　of　work。　Again；　according　to　equally　well…known　principles；　about　which　there　is　a　no　less　complete　agreement　among　all　parties　to　the　controversy；　the　fatigue　and　strain　of　the　laborer　grows　with　the　increase　in　the　duration　of　labor。　Other　thing　being　equal；　the　tenth　hour　of　labor　is　unquestionably　more　fatiguing　than　the　third　or　sixth；　and　a　fourteenth　or　an　eighteenth　would　certainly　be　still　more　fatiguing。　Now；　since　the　marginal　utility　of　every　five　cents　added　to　the　pay　of　the　laborer　is；　less　than　the　utility　of　the　last　preceding　five　cents；　and　since　with　each　additional　quarter　of　an　hour　of　labor　the　pain　increases；　there　must　come　a　point　where　the　two　will　meet　or　be　in　equilibrium　with　each　other；　it　is　also　undoubtedly　true　that　when　the　laborer　is　entirely　free　to　determine　the　length　of　his　labor　day；　he　will　continue　his　labor　until　this　point　of　equilibrium　is　reached。　He　will　work　nine　and　one…half　hours　when　and　because　to　his　mind　five　cents　is　just　sufficient　indemnification　for　the　disutility　of　the　thirty…eighth　quarter…hour　of　labor；　but　not　sufficient　for　the　somewhat　greater　disutility　of　the　thirty…ninth　quarter　hour。　　　　　　This　point　of　equilibrium　will；　of　course；　vary　for　different　laborers。　A　laborer；　for　instance；　who　must　provide　for　a　large　family；　and　to　whom　the　addition　of　five　cents　means　the　satisfaction　of　a　quite　important　want；　will　be　inclined　to　work　longer；　as　will　also　a　strong；　vigorous　laborer；　who　feels　less　fatigue　from　this　labor。　On　the　other　hand；　the　sickly　or　lazy　laborer；　or　the　one　who　has　fewer；　or　less　pressing　wants；　will　stop　at　an　earlier　point。　He　will　prefer　a　longer　period　of　leisure　to　the　increased　amount　of　wages；　which　he　would　have　obtained　had　he　continued　to　work。　　　　　　It　is　just　as　manifest　that；　other　things　being　equal；　the　point　of　equilibrium　will　vary　for　one　and　the　same　laborer；　according　to　the　amount　of　the　wages　which　he　will　receive　for　the　additional　quarter　hour。　A　laborer　who　would　work　thirty…eight　quarter　hours；　for　five　cents　per　quarter　hour；　would　perhaps　work　forty…two　quarter　hours；　if　he　could　obtain　seven　and　a　half　cents　per　quarter　hour；　while　if　he　received　only　two　and　a　half　cents；　he　might　only　work　thirty　quarter　hours。（17*）　Or　the　number　of　hours　of　labor　and　the　degree　of　fatigue；　which　the　laborer　will　endure；　will　vary　with　the　rate　of　wages。　　　　　　Upon　what　then；　under　the　above　assumption；　will　the　rate　of　wages　（in　other　words　the　value　of　the　labor）　and　the　value　of　the　created　products　depend？　For　the　simple　conditions　of　a　Robinson　Crusoe　this　question　is　already　answered。　The　value　of　the　goods　produced；　which　for　a　Crusoe　have　no　price；　but　merely　a　objective　value；　will　equal　their　marginal　utilities　to　him。　Since　the　product　constitute　his　wages　or　the　recompense　for　his　labor；　the　rate　of　wages　or　the　value　of　his　labor　is　identical　with　the　value　of　the　product。　　　　　　Finally；　Crusoe；　as　a　reasonable　being；　will　continue　his　labor　to　that　quarter　of　an　hour；　the　disutility　of　which　will　be　exactly　counterbalanced　by　the　utility　of　the　goods　produced　in　this　quarter　of　an　hour。　All　four　of　the　items　which　we　have　been　considering　would　then　be　equal。　Value　of　product…value　of　labor…marginal　utility…pain　of　labor。　If　it　is　asked：　What；　in　this　case；　are　the　factors　that　determine　the　value　of　the　product？　We　must　reply　that　〃utility〃　and　〃disutility〃　are　here　of　equal　importance。　The　utility　of　the　goods　produced　and　the　pain　of　the　labor　undergone。　This　point　of　equilibrium　by　which　the　marginal　utility；　and　therefore　the　value；　is　determined；　is　in　reality　the　marginal　point　for　both　utility　and　disutility。　We　might　therefore；　in　this　case；　say　with　Professor　Marshall；　that；　in　the　determination　of　value；　utility　and　disutility；　or　pleasure　and　pain；　work　together　like　the　two　blade　of　a　pair　of　shears。　　　　　　Though　essentially　the　same　thing；　the　matter　take　a　somewhat　more　complicated　form；　when　we　turn　to　the　consideration　of　a　laborer　in　our　actual　economic　world；　still　assuming　of　course　that　the　laborer　is　free　to　continue；　or　to　terminate　his　labor　when　he　please。　Here　also；　the　value　of　the　product　will　equal　the　value　or　wages　of　labor。　This　will　be　true；　even　though　the　laborer　does　not　receive　his　reward　directly　in　the　form　of　the　created　product；　but　receives　a　certain　money　consideration；　in　lieu　of　his　share　of　the　product。　When　competition　has　done　its　work；　and　forced　the　value　of　the　product　down；　until　it　equals　its　cost；　then　the　wages　which　the　entrepreneur　has　paid　out　either　directly　or　indirectly；　must　equal　the　value　of　the　product；　（we　here　ignore　all　payments　for　abstinence