lecture iv-第7节

按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！


power。　The　business　transacted　at　the　court　of　a　Russian　prince
being　distributed　among　different　departments；　the　heads　of　these
departments　were　summoned　to　sit　in　the　council　and　received　the
name　of　boyars。　Money　being　scarce；　the　boyars　were　paid　for
their　services　by　the　donation　of　crown　lands；　and　this　mode　of
payment　being　known　under　the　name　of　〃pont；〃　the　surname　of　the
boyars　was　〃poutevii　boyari。〃　Most　of　the　boyars　summoned　to　sit
in　the　Douma　were　exempted　from　military　service；　and　especially
from　the　duty　of　opposing　the　enemy　at　the　head　of　their　own
retainers；　not　so　much　in　the　open　country　as　in　their　own
castles。　Hence　the　origin　of　another　surname　〃wedennii　boiari〃
which　distinguished　the　most　powerful　members　of　the　Russian
medieval　nobility。　If　we　inquire　into　the　origin　of　those
admitted　to　the　princely　council；　we　shall　see　that　they　belonged
to　the　same　class　as　that　which　furnished　officers　to　the　army
and　the　chiefs　of　the　central　and　provincial　administration。　This
class　is　precisely　that　known　to　the　Anglo…Saxons　as　Thanes；　and
to　the　Merovingian　kings　under　the　title　of　Antrustions。　The
peculiarity　of　medieval　Russia　consisted　in　this；　that；　being
divided　into　a　great　number　of　principalities；　it　left　to　the
knightly　class　the　liberty　of　freely　choosing　the　prince　whom
they　would　like　to　follow。　The　Russian　knightly　class；
corresponding　to　the　〃ministeriels〃　of　feudal　Germany；　the
so…called　〃slougili　liudi〃　or　〃men　of　service；〃　were　authorised
by　custom　to　remain　in　the　service　of　any　prince　as　long　as　they
pleased；　and　to　change　from　one　prince　to　another　according　to
their　own　pleasure。　Before　attaching　himself　to　any　prince　the
〃man　of　service〃　signed　a　sort　of　contract　with　the　political
head　of　the　country　in　which　he　intended　to　settle。　On　taking
service；　a　charter　was　delivered　to　the　knight　in　which　his
duties　and　rights　were　precisely　stated；　and　the　prince　had　no
right　to　infringe　these　conditions。　In　case　of　bad　treatment；　the
knight　found　no　difficulty　in　leaving　the　prince　whom　he　was
serving　and　in　entering　into　similar　relations　with　some　other　of
the　numerous　petty　potentates；　who　ruled　over　medieval　Russia。
This　right　of　freely　passing　from　the　service　of　one　prince　to
that　of　another　was　clearly　recognised　by　the　following　sentence
in　a　treaty　signed　by　the　prince　of　Tver　with　the　Grand　Duke　of
Lithuania；　Kasimir；　as　late　as　the　middle　of　the　fifteenth
century；　1449；　〃Our　bovars　and　men　of　service　may　freely　withdraw
from　one　of　us　to　the　other。〃　This　document　is　probably　the　last
recognition　of　the　liberty　of　removal　once　enjoyed　by　the
knightly　class。
　　　　The　increasing　power　of　the　Grand　Duke　of　Moscovy　could　not
tolerate　this　survival　of　federal　autonomy。　This　prince　did　not
object　to　the　liberty　of　removal　as　long　as　it　served　his　own
purposes　by　increasing　the　number　of　persons　seeking　service　in
the　Moscovite　army　and　Moscovite　civil　service；　but　as　soon　as
the　tyranny　of　some　of　the　Grand　Dukes　caused　their　own　knights
to　withdraw　to　Poland　and　Lithuania；　severe　measures　were　taken
to　put　a　stop　to　this　movement　of　emigration。　The　Grand　Duke
began　to　confiscate　the　grants　of　land　（〃po　mestie〃）　of　the
departing　knights；　and　every　time　he　could　lay　hands　on　one　of
these　seceders　he　was　sure　to　throw　him　into　prison；　very　often
together　with　his　wife　and　children。　The　clergy；　always　on　the
side　of　the　secular　power；　more　than　once　likened　the　behaviour
of　a　seceding　knight　to　the　conduct　of　Judas；　and　declared　it　to
be　not　only　treason　against　the　State　but　also　a　sin　in　the　eyes
of　God。
　　　　Keeping　in　mind　the　facts　just　mentioned；　we　shall　have　no
difficulty　in　explaining　the　Concourse　of　knights　and　men　of　the
sword　in　the　grand　duchy　of　Moscovy。　The　territorial　extension　of
the　duchy　had　necessitated　the　abolition　of　a　great　number　of
small　principalities；　and　persons　formerly　belonging　to　the
ruling　dynasties　and　united　by　ties　of　blood　to　the　Tzar；　were
anxious　to　enter　his　service。　In　this　manner　the　knightly　class
began　to　number　in　its　ranks　a　whole　group　of　princely　families
who　were　the　descendants　of　those　potentates　whose　dominions　had
been　conquered　and　annexed　by　Moscow。　Before　long　the　number　of
persons　desirous　of　taking　service　under　the　Grand　Duke　totally
excluded　the　possibility　of　personal　and　separate　conventions；
such　as　those　which　settled　the　mutual　rights　and　duties　of
prince　and　knight　in　the　other　principalities　of　Russia。　These
personal　agreements　were　superseded　by　a　general　enactment；　which
declared　that　the　man　of　service　occupied　a　higher　or　lower　rank
in　the　political　hierarchy　according；　first；　to　the　dignity　of
the　family　to　which　he　belonged；　and；　secondly；　to　the　number　of
years　his　family　had　been　engaged　in　the　Moscovite　service。
　　　　It　was　generally　acknowledged　that　a　princely　family　　that
is；　a　family　that　had　once　belonged　to　the　number　of　ruling
dynasties；　ought　to　have　precedence　over　all　others　among
untitled　nobles。　Whoever　could　show　among　his　ancestors　persons
in　a　high　official　post　had　the　right　to　refuse　any　inferior
situation；　especially　in　those　cases　in　which　a　person　of　a
comparatively　new　family　was　to　be　set　over　him　as　his　superior。
This　order　of　precedence　was　more　than　once　set　aside　in
consequence　of　the　low　condition　to　which　this　or　that　wealthy
family　had　been　reduced　by　the　loss　of　its　estates。　A　Russian
noble　in　a　miserable　state　of　poverty　was　as　little　entitled　to
occupy　a　high　official　position；　as　was　a　penniless　English　duke；
or　earl；　to　take　his　seat　in　the　House　of　Lords　in　the　fifteenth
century；　in　the　reign　of　Edward　IV。
　　　　The　rules　of　precedence；　constituting　what　our　ancestors　of
the　fifteenth　and　sixteenth　centuries　called　〃mestnichestro；〃
were　scrupulously　observed　both　in　the　army　and　in　the　civil
service。　They　also　found　expression　in　the　constitution　of　the
Council　or　Douma。　The　titled　nobility；　the　princely　families；　as
a　rule；　occupied　the　highest　rank　in　the　hierarchy　of　the
councillors；　the　rank　of　〃doumn　iboyars；〃　or　boyars　of　the
Council。
　　　　A　certain　number　of　the　old　Moscovite　nobility　were　allowed
to　retain　their　original　rank；　but　the　rest　of　the　nobles　were　by
degrees　lowered　to　that　of　persons　whose　only　distinction　was　to
be　〃the　children　of　ancient　boyars。〃　The　documents　of　the　time
speak　of　them　in　precisely　these　terms；　calling　them　〃boiarski
dieti；〃　children　of　the　boyars。
　　　　The　second　rank　among　the　members　of　the　Douma　was　occupied
by　those　known　under　the　name　of　〃ocolnichii；〃　or　persons　living
immediately　about　the　Duke。　This　rank　in　the　Douma　belonged；　as　a
rule；　to　members　of　the　old　Moscovite　nobility；　as　well　as　to
some　of　the　smaller　princely　families。　The　Duke　had　the　right　to
confer　on　his　〃ocolnichy〃　the　higher　title　of　boyar　as　a
recompense　for　his　services。　The　rest　of　the　knightly　class　were
either　entirely　unconnected　with　the　Council　or　were　simply
summoned　to　be　present　at　some　of　its　sittings。　They　were　known
under　the　general　name　of　〃noblemen　belonging　to　the　Douma；〃
〃dumnii　dvoriani；〃　and　formed　the　third　rank　of　Councillors。
　　　　The　fourth　or　lowest　rank　in　the　Council　was　composed　of
those　members　of　the　knightly　class　who　condescended　to　hold
second…rate　posts　in　the　different　executive　bodies　of　the　duchy；
such　as　the　Foreign　Office　（〃Posolsky　prikaz〃）；　or　the　board
presiding　over　temporary　or　life　grants　of　land　（Pomesini
prikaz）。　These　second…rate　bureaucrats；　known　under　the　name　of
secretaries；　diaki；　were　regularly　admitted　to　the　sittings　of
the　Council；　where　they　formed　the　lowest　but　by　no　means　the
least　influential　order。
　　　　From　what　has　been　said　it　will　be　seen　that　autocratic　power
in　Russia　had　to　deal　with　certain　counterpoises　and　moderating
influences　in　the　political　constitution　of　the　country　even
after　the　fall　of　the　ancient　folkmotes。　These　checks　and
restraints　had　their　roots　in　the　old　political　rights　exercised
by　the　chiefs　of　the　almost　independent　principalities　which
constituted　the　unorganised　federacy　of　Russian　states。　Whilst
submitting　to　the　power　of　the　Moscovite　prince；　these　once
independent　chiefs　insisted　on　the　recognition　of　their　privilege
to　be　next　after　the　Tzar；　the　principal　ruler　of　the　country。
The　so…called　mestnichestvo　was；　therefore；　a　sort　of　unwritten
constitution；　recognising　in　each　of　the　members　of　the　higher
nobility　his　distinct　right　to　a　place　in　the　machinery　of　the
State。　The　lover　classes　alone　had　no　part　in　the　conduct　of
public　affairs。　An　end　was　put　to　this　anomalous　situation　by　the
convocation　of　the　States…General。　The　origin　of　these
States…General；　or　Sobors；　and　their　further　development；　will
form　the　subject　of　our　next　lecture。

NOTES：

1。　Herbord；　ii。　15…30。

2。　〃Complete　Collection　of　Russian　Chronicles；〃　vi。　213。

3。　Compare　Diakonov；　〃The　Supreme　Power　of　the　Moscovite　Tsars；〃
Petersburg；　1889。

4。　This　subject　has　been　very　ably　discussed　by　Professor
Kluchovsky。