lecture iv-第3节

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one　living　with　his　kindred；　and　these　kindreds　occupying
distinct　territorial　districts。〃　（Kojdo　s　svoim　rodom　i　na　svoich
mestech；　kojdo　vladeiusche　rodom　svoim。）　in　the　sentence　just
quoted；　the　chronicler　describes　the　social　organisation　of　the
most　enlightened　tribe　of　the　Eastern　Slavs；　the　Polians；　and
immediately　afterwards　he　speaks　of　three　brothers　and　their
sister；　who　exercised　in　common　some　sort　of　political　authority
over　the　tribe。　According　to　this　chronicler；　the　direct
descendants　of　these　brothers　ruled　over　the　Polians。　It　is　also
recorded　of　the　Drevlians；　another　Slavonic　tribe；　that　it　had
its　own　prince；　Mal。　but　the　Polians　and　the　Drevlians　seem　to
have　been　the　only　tribes　living　under　monarchical　rule。　The　rest
of　the　Slavonic　tribes　established　in　Russia　are　represented　to
us　as　having　no　princes；　but　as　living　divided　into　clans　or
〃gentes；〃　which　were　often　at　war　one　with　another　（vsta　rod　na
rod）；　a　state　of　things　which　at　length　induced　them　〃to　seek　a
foreign　prince　（kniaz）　to　command　and　judge　them　according　to
justice。〃　The　establishment　of　monarchical　power　thus　appears　to
have　been　the　direct　result　of　a　free　decision　on　the　part　of　the
people。　The　chronicle　speaks　of　the　tribes；　which　sent　for　a
foreign　prince；　as　having　previously　assembled　together
（snidoschasia　vkoupe；　sobravschesia）。　This　means　that　the
decision　to　call　in　a　foreign　prince　was　the　work　of　a　folkmote。
Such　is　the　first　mention　we　possess　of　a　Russian　popular
assembly。　The　facts　I　have　recorded　happened　in　the　second　half
of　the　ninth　century；　in　the　year　862。　Alluding　to　them；　the
chronicle　of　Sousdal；　under　the　year　1176；　makes　the　following
general　statement。　〃The　inhabitants　of　Novgorod；　of　Smolensk；　of
Kiev；　and　of　Poloczk；　and　of　all　the　principalities　（volosti）　of
Russia；　were　from　the　beginning；　and　are　still；　in　the　habit　of
meeting　at　folkmotes　as　at　a　sort　of　council。〃　The　term　employed
to　designate　the　folkmote　is　that　of　veche　from　the　verb　veschat；
to　announce；　to　declare。　According　to　the　sentence　just　quoted；
the　veche　may　be　traced　from　the　oldest　period　of　our　national
existence。　This　is　directly　confirmed；　in　relation　to　the
Polians；　by　the　following　statement：　〃In　the　years　next
following；〃　says　Nestor；　speaking　of　the　end　of　the　ninth
century；　〃they　thought　in　common　（sdoumavsche）　and　decided　to　pay
to　the　Chasars　a　certain　tax；　the　amount　of　which　was　one　sword
from　every　hearth。〃　The　Drevlians　are　also　spoken　of　by　the
chronicle　as　having　on　one　occasion　〃thought　in　common　with　their
prince　Mal；〃　and　decided　to　slaughter　the　son　of　Rurik；　Igor。
Now；　this　〃thinking　in　common〃　of　a　whole　tribe　with　its
political　head；　can　only　mean　that　the　prince　consulted　the
folkmote；　and　with　its　help　arrived　at　a　definite　decision。
　　　　A　peculiar　feature　of　the　oldest　Russian　folkmotes；　a　feature
which　totally　disappears　by　the　end　of　the　tenth　century；　is；
that　they　are　the　assembly　of　a　whole　tribe；　sometimes　even　of
several　tribes；　and　not　of　the　inhabitants　of　one　single　urban
district。　The　Chronicle　of　Nestor　speaks　of　the　Polians；　the
Drevlians；　the　Krivichs；　the　Sever；　and　such　like　people；　as　of
persons　coming　together；　consulting　one　another　and
〃accomplishing　certain　acts　in　common。〃　I　have　already　said　that
these　were　separate　tribes；　each　one　subdivided　into　kindreds　or
〃gentes〃　（rodi）。　Such　being　the　case；　the　veche　of　the　early　days
of　Russian　historical　development；　was　a　kind　of　tribal　assembly
very　like　those　which　Caesar　and　Tacitus　found　among　the　ancient
Germans。
　　　　With　the　beginning　of　the　eleventh　century；　the　Russian
folkmote　or　veche　acquired　a　new　character；　when　the　thief　cities
of　Russia；　the　political　centres　of　more　or　less　independent
states；　obtained　their　separate　assemblies。　The　chronicles
mention　on　different　occasions　the　veches　of　Belgorod；　of
Vladimir　in　Volhynia；　of　Berestie；　of　Riazan；　Mourom；　and　Pronsk；
of　Smolensk；　Poloczk　and　Koursk；　of　Rostov；　Sousdal；　Pereiaslavl
and　Vladimir　on　the　Kliasm；　besides　those　of　Kiev；　Novgorod；
Pscov；　and　Viatka。
　　　　If　we　inquire　into　the　internal　constitution　and　functions　of
the　veche；　we　shall　have　no　difficulty　in　ascertaining　that　in
both　these　points　the　Russian　folkmotes　did　not　essentially
differ　from　those　of　other　Slavonic　nations。
　　　　The　chronicles；　when　they　speak　of　those　summoned　to　these
assemblies；　briefly　note　the　presence　of　all　the　citizens　of　a
definite　urban　division。　Expressions　such　as　the　following　are
also　more　than　once　met　with　in　the　course　of　the　narrative：　〃the
men　of　our　land；〃　〃the　whole　land　of　Galich；〃　and　so　on。　Hence；
it　is　evident　that　we　have　to　deal　with　a　thoroughly　democratic
assembly。　But　it　does　not　follow　that　all　the　inhabitants　of　the
city　were　summoned。　The　veche　was　not　so　much　an　assembly　of　the
whole　people　as　that　of　the　heads　of　families；　or　rather　of　the
natural　chiefs　of　Slavonic　house　communities　known　to　the
earliest　code　of　Russia；　the　pravda　of　Jaroslav；　under　the　name
of　〃verv。〃
　　　　On　several　occasions　the　unknown　authors　of　Russian
chronicles　seem　to　imply　that　the　men　assembled　at　the　folkmote
made　certain　engagements；　not　only　on　their　own　behalf　but　also
on　that　of　their　children。　For　instance；　〃the　men　of　Kiev；　in
folkmote　assembled；〃　declare　in　1147；　that　they　will　fight
against　the　House　of　Oleg；　one　of　the　branches　of　the　dynasty　of
Rurik；　not　by　themselves　alone；　but　also　by　their　children。　This
declaration　clearly　shows　that　children　did　not　appear　at　a
Russian　folkmote；　but　that　their　absence　was　solely　caused　by
their　personal　dependence　on　the　head　of　the　undivided　family。　We
may；　therefore；　infer　that　all　those　who　were　not　free　to　dispose
of　themselves　were　excluded　from　the　veche；　and　such　was　the　case
as　regarded　certain　members　of　undivided　households　and　those　who
had　forfeited　their　liberty　through　war　or　debt。　In　a　society
based；　like　the　old　Russian；　on　the　principle　of　blood
relationship；　undivided　households　must　have　been　numerous；　and
the　fact　that　the　heads　of　these　households　were　alone　summoned
naturally　diminished　the　number　of　persons　composing　the　veche。
It　may；　therefore；　be　easily　understood　how　a　large　square　such
as　those　on　which　the　princely　palaces　of　Novgorod　or　of　Kiev
were　built；　was　quite　able　to　contain　an　entire　assembly；
notwithstanding　the　fact　that　the　citizens　were　not　the　only
persons　admitted　to　the　meetings　of　the　veche；　for　the　suburbs
and　even　the　neighbouring　townships　had　the　right　to　have　an
equal　share　with　them　on　the　management　of　public　affairs。　The
chronicles　very　often　mention　the　fact　of　the　〃black　people；〃
〃the　smerds；〃　and　the　so…called　〃bad　peasants〃　（terms　designating
the　agricultural　population　of　the　country）　being　present　at　the
veche。　The　urban　district　was　as　a　rule　very　large；　the　lands
owned　by　the　citizens　in　some　cases　extending　to　hundreds　and
even　thousands　of　miles　outside　the　city　wall。　In　order　to
preserve　these　widely　scattered　possessions；　the　city　often　built
fortresses；　which　in　case　of　war　offered　a　refuge　to　the
inhabitants　of　the　surrounding　country。　In　time　of　peace　these
fortified　places　answered　another　purpose；　markets　were　regularly
held　in　them　and　hence　in　course　of　time　artisans　and　merchants
were　induced　to　choose　them　for　their　settled　abode。　The
population　increased　day　by　day；　the　fortress　became　surrounded
by　suburbs；　and　a　new　city　appeared　where　originally　there　had
been　nothing　but　a　wooden　fence　with　a　moat　or　ditch　around　it。
The　inhabitants　of　this　new　city　had　generally　the　right　to
appear　at　the　veches　of　the　metropolis；　but　they　usually
preferred　meeting　at　assemblies　of　their　own。　The　roads　being　had
and　not　always　safe；　they　did　not　see　what　was　to　be　gained　by　a
long　journey；　but　chose　rather　to　stay　at　home　and　hold　their　own
folkmotes　from　time　to　time。
　　　　The　chronicles　of　Sousdal　seem　to　imply　that　the　decisions　of
the　local　folkmotes　did　not；　as　a　rule；　differ　from　those　of　the
metropolis。　〃What　has　been　established　by　the　oldest　city；　is
maintained　by　its　boroughs。〃　Such　are　the　words　in　which　the
chronicle　expresses　the　mutual　relations　of　the　metropolis　and
the　daughter　towns。　The　real　meaning　of　the　sentence　is　not　at
all　that　of　dutiful　subjection　on　the　part　of　the　new　town
towards　the　mother　city。　The　writer　merely　wishes　to　suggest　the
idea　of　a　good　understanding　between　the　metropolis　and　the
boroughs　it　has　built。　This　good　understanding　was　not　always
maintained；　and　on　more　than　one　occasion　the　borough　came　to　a
decision　the　reverse　of　that　of　the　chief　city。　A　similar
disagreement　occurred　more　than　once　between　different　quarters
（konzi）　of　the　same　city。　Such　was　often　the　case　at　Novgorod；
divided　as　it　was　into　five　different　administrative　districts　or
wards；　which　more　than　once　held　their　own　separate　folkmotes　and
opposed　the　decisions　of　the　general　assembly。　Such　a
misunderstanding　sometimes　ended　in　open　war；　the　minority
refusing　to　submit　to　the　decision　of　the　majority。
　　　　This　fact　alone　shows　that　the　Russian　veches　admitted　no
other　mode　of　settling　public　affairs　than　that　of　unanimous