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CHAPTER¡¡VII¡£¡¡THE¡¡PUBLIC¡¡DISCONTENTS

While¡¡President¡¡and¡¡Congress¡¡were¡¡passing¡¡the¡¡time¡¡in¡¡mutual¡¡obstruction£»¡¡the¡¡public¡¡discontents¡¡were¡¡becoming¡¡hot¡¡and¡¡bitter¡¡to¡¡a¡¡degree¡¡unknown¡¡before¡£¡¡A¡¡marked¡¡feature¡¡of¡¡the¡¡situation¡¡was¡¡the¡¡disturbance¡¡of¡¡public¡¡convenience¡¡involving¡¡loss£»¡¡trouble£»¡¡and¡¡distress¡¡which¡¡were¡¡vast¡¡in¡¡extent¡¡but¡¡not¡¡easily¡¡expressed¡¡in¡¡statistical¡¡form¡£¡¡The¡¡first¡¡three¡¡months¡¡of¡¡1886¡¡saw¡¡an¡¡outbreak¡¡of¡¡labor¡¡troubles¡¡far¡¡beyond¡¡any¡¡previous¡¡record¡¡in¡¡their¡¡variety¡¡and¡¡extent¡£¡¡In¡¡1885£»¡¡the¡¡number¡¡of¡¡strikes¡¡reported¡¡was¡¡645¡¡affecting¡¡2284¡¡establishments£»¡¡a¡¡marked¡¡increase¡¡over¡¡preceding¡¡years¡£¡¡In¡¡1886£»¡¡the¡¡number¡¡of¡¡strikes¡¡rose¡¡to¡¡1411£»¡¡affecting¡¡9861¡¡establishments¡¡and¡¡directly¡¡involving¡¡499£»489¡¡persons¡£¡¡The¡¡most¡¡numerous¡¡strikes¡¡were¡¡in¡¡the¡¡building¡¡trades£»¡¡but¡¡there¡¡were¡¡severe¡¡struggles¡¡in¡¡many¡¡other¡¡industries¡£¡¡There¡¡was£»¡¡for¡¡example£»¡¡an¡¡interruption¡¡of¡¡business¡¡on¡¡the¡¡New¡¡York¡¡elevated¡¡railway¡¡and¡¡on¡¡the¡¡street¡¡railways¡¡of¡¡New¡¡York£»¡¡Brooklyn£»¡¡and¡¡other¡¡cities¡£

But¡¡the¡¡greatest¡¡public¡¡anxiety¡¡was¡¡caused¡¡by¡¡the¡¡behavior¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Knights¡¡of¡¡Labor£»¡¡an¡¡organization¡¡then¡¡growing¡¡so¡¡rapidly¡¡that¡¡it¡¡gave¡¡promise¡¡of¡¡uniting¡¡under¡¡one¡¡control¡¡the¡¡active¡¡and¡¡energetic¡¡elements¡¡of¡¡the¡¡working¡¡classes¡¡of¡¡the¡¡country¡£¡¡It¡¡started¡¡in¡¡a¡¡humble¡¡way£»¡¡in¡¡December£»¡¡1869£»¡¡among¡¡certain¡¡garment¡¡cutters¡¡in¡¡Philadelphia£»¡¡and¡¡for¡¡some¡¡years¡¡spread¡¡slowly¡¡from¡¡that¡¡center¡£¡¡The¡¡organization¡¡remained¡¡strictly¡¡secret¡¡until¡¡1878£»¡¡in¡¡which¡¡year¡¡it¡¡held¡¡a¡¡national¡¡convention¡¡of¡¡its¡¡fifteen¡¡district¡¡assemblies¡¡at¡¡Reading£»¡¡Pennsylvania¡£¡¡The¡¡object¡¡and¡¡principles¡¡of¡¡the¡¡order¡¡were¡¡now¡¡made¡¡public¡¡and£»¡¡thereafter£»¡¡it¡¡spread¡¡with¡¡startling¡¡rapidity£»¡¡so¡¡that¡¡in¡¡1886¡¡it¡¡pitted¡¡its¡¡strength¡¡against¡¡public¡¡authority¡¡with¡¡a¡¡membership¡¡estimated¡¡at¡¡from£»¡¡500£»000¡¡to¡¡800£»000¡£¡¡Had¡¡this¡¡body¡¡been¡¡an¡¡army¡¡obedient¡¡to¡¡its¡¡leaders£»¡¡it¡¡would¡¡have¡¡wielded¡¡great¡¡power£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡turned¡¡out¡¡to¡¡be¡¡only¡¡a¡¡mob¡£¡¡Its¡¡members¡¡took¡¡part¡¡in¡¡demonstrations¡¡which¡¡were¡¡as¡¡much¡¡mutinies¡¡against¡¡the¡¡authority¡¡of¡¡their¡¡own¡¡executive¡¡board¡¡as¡¡they¡¡were¡¡strikes¡¡against¡¡their¡¡employers¡£¡¡The¡¡result¡¡of¡¡lack¡¡of¡¡organization¡¡soon¡¡began¡¡to¡¡be¡¡evident¡£¡¡In¡¡March¡¡1886£»¡¡the¡¡receiver¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Texas¡¡Pacific¡¡Railroad¡¡discharged¡¡an¡¡employee¡¡prominent¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Knights¡¡of¡¡Labor¡¡and¡¡thus¡¡precipitated¡¡a¡¡strike¡¡which¡¡was¡¡promptly¡¡extended¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Missouri¡¡Pacific¡£¡¡There¡¡were¡¡riots¡¡at¡¡various¡¡points¡¡in¡¡Missouri¡¡and¡¡Kansas£»¡¡and¡¡railroad¡¡traffic¡¡at¡¡St¡£¡¡Louis¡¡was¡¡completely¡¡suspended¡¡for¡¡some¡¡days£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡strike¡¡was¡¡eventually¡¡broken¡£¡¡The¡¡Knights¡¡of¡¡Labor£»¡¡however£»¡¡had¡¡received¡¡a¡¡blow¡¡from¡¡which¡¡it¡¡never¡¡recovered£»¡¡and¡¡as¡¡a¡¡result¡¡its¡¡membership¡¡declined¡£¡¡The¡¡order¡¡has¡¡since¡¡been¡¡almost¡¡wholly¡¡superseded¡¡by¡¡the¡¡American¡¡Federation¡¡of¡¡Labor£»¡¡established¡¡in¡¡1886¡¡through¡¡shrewd¡¡management¡¡by¡¡an¡¡association¡¡of¡¡labor¡¡unions¡¡which¡¡had¡¡been¡¡maintained¡¡since¡¡1881¡£¡¡The¡¡Knights¡¡had¡¡been¡¡organized¡¡by¡¡localities¡¡with¡¡the¡¡aim¡¡of¡¡merging¡¡all¡¡classes¡¡of¡¡working¡¡men¡¡into¡¡one¡¡body¡£¡¡The¡¡Federation£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡¡hand£»¡¡is¡¡composed¡¡of¡¡trades¡¡unions¡¡retaining¡¡their¡¡autonomya¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡organization¡¡which¡¡has¡¡proved¡¡to¡¡be¡¡more¡¡solid¡¡and¡¡durable¡£

To¡¡these¡¡signs¡¡of¡¡popular¡¡discontent¡¡the¡¡Government¡¡could¡¡not¡¡be¡¡blind¡£¡¡A¡¡congressional¡¡committee¡¡investigated¡¡the¡¡railroad¡¡strikes£»¡¡and¡¡both¡¡parties¡¡in¡¡Congress¡¡busied¡¡themselves¡¡with¡¡labor¡¡legislation¡£¡¡But¡¡in¡¡spite¡¡of¡¡this¡¡apparent¡¡willingness¡¡to¡¡cope¡¡with¡¡the¡¡situation£»¡¡there¡¡now¡¡followed¡¡another¡¡display¡¡of¡¡those¡¡cross¡¡purposes¡¡which¡¡occurred¡¡so¡¡often¡¡during¡¡the¡¡Cleveland¡¡administration¡£¡¡The¡¡House¡¡had¡¡already¡¡passed¡¡a¡¡bill¡¡providing¡¡means¡¡of¡¡submitting¡¡to¡¡arbitration¡¡controversies¡¡between¡¡railroads¡¡engaged¡¡in¡¡interstate¡¡commerce¡¡and¡¡their¡¡employees¡£¡¡President¡¡Cleveland¡¡now¡¡sent¡¡a¡¡special¡¡message¡¡recommending¡¡that¡¡¡¨instead¡¡of¡¡arbitrators¡¡chosen¡¡in¡¡the¡¡heat¡¡of¡¡conflicting¡¡claims¡¡and¡¡after¡¡each¡¡dispute¡¡shall¡¡arise£»¡¡there¡¡be¡¡created¡¡a¡¡Commission¡¡of¡¡Labor£»¡¡consisting¡¡of¡¡three¡¡members£»¡¡who¡¡shall¡¡be¡¡regular¡¡officers¡¡of¡¡the¡¡government£»¡¡charged¡¡among¡¡other¡¡duties¡¡with¡¡the¡¡consideration¡¡and¡¡settlement¡¡when¡¡possible£»¡¡of¡¡all¡¡controversies¡¡between¡¡labor¡¡and¡¡capital¡£¡¨¡¡In¡¡spite¡¡of¡¡the¡¡urgency¡¡of¡¡the¡¡situation£»¡¡the¡¡Senate¡¡seized¡¡this¡¡occasion¡¡for¡¡a¡¡new¡¡display¡¡of¡¡party¡¡tactics£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡Allowed¡¡the¡¡bill¡¡already¡¡passed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡House¡¡to¡¡lie¡¡without¡¡action¡¡while¡¡it¡¡proceeded¡¡to¡¡consider¡¡various¡¡labor¡¡measures¡¡of¡¡its¡¡own¡£¡¡For¡¡example£»¡¡by¡¡June¡¡1£»¡¡1886£»¡¡the¡¡Senate¡¡had¡¡passed¡¡a¡¡bill¡¡providing¡¡that¡¡eight¡¡hours¡¡should¡¡be¡¡a¡¡day's¡¡work¡¡for¡¡letter¡­carriers£»¡¡soon¡¡afterwards£»¡¡it¡¡passed¡¡a¡¡bill¡¡legalizing¡¡the¡¡incorporation¡¡of¡¡national¡¡trades¡¡unions£»¡¡to¡¡which¡¡the¡¡House¡¡promptly¡¡assented¡¡without¡¡a¡¡division£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡House¡¡then¡¡continued¡¡its¡¡labor¡¡record¡¡by¡¡passing¡¡on¡¡the¡¡15th¡¡of¡¡July¡¡a¡¡bill¡¡against¡¡the¡¡importation¡¡of¡¡contract¡¡labor¡£¡¡This¡¡last¡¡bill¡¡was¡¡not¡¡passed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Senate¡¡until¡¡after¡¡the¡¡fall¡¡elections¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡approved¡¡by¡¡the¡¡President¡¡on¡¡February¡¡23£»¡¡1887¡£

The¡¡Senate¡¡also¡¡delayed¡¡action¡¡on¡¡the¡¡House¡¡bill£»¡¡which¡¡proposed¡¡arbitration¡¡in¡¡labor¡¡disputes£»¡¡until¡¡the¡¡close¡¡of¡¡the¡¡session£»¡¡and¡¡then¡¡the¡¡President£»¡¡in¡¡view¡¡of¡¡his¡¡disregarded¡¡suggestion£»¡¡withheld¡¡his¡¡assent¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡not¡¡until¡¡the¡¡following¡¡year¡¡that¡¡the¡¡legislation¡¡recommended¡¡by¡¡the¡¡President¡¡was¡¡enacted¡£¡¡By¡¡the¡¡Act¡¡of¡¡June¡¡13£»¡¡1888£»¡¡the¡¡Department¡¡of¡¡Labor¡¡was¡¡established£»¡¡and¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Act¡¡of¡¡October¡¡1£»¡¡1888£»¡¡in¡¡addition¡¡to¡¡provision¡¡for¡¡voluntary¡¡arbitration¡¡between¡¡railroad¡¡corporations¡¡and¡¡their¡¡employees£»¡¡the¡¡President¡¡was¡¡authorized¡¡to¡¡appoint¡¡a¡¡commission¡¡to¡¡investigate¡¡labor¡¡conflicts£»¡¡with¡¡power¡¡to¡¡act¡¡as¡¡a¡¡board¡¡of¡¡conciliation¡£¡¡During¡¡the¡¡ten¡¡years¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡act¡¡remained¡¡on¡¡the¡¡statute¡¡books£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡actually¡¡put¡¡to¡¡use¡¡only¡¡in¡¡1894£»¡¡when¡¡a¡¡commission¡¡was¡¡appointed¡¡to¡¡investigate¡¡the¡¡Pullman¡¡strike¡¡at¡¡Chicago£»¡¡but¡¡this¡¡body¡¡took¡¡no¡¡action¡¡towards¡¡settling¡¡the¡¡dispute¡£

Thus¡¡far£»¡¡then£»¡¡the¡¡efforts¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Government¡¡to¡¡deal¡¡with¡¡the¡¡labor¡¡problem¡¡had¡¡not¡¡been¡¡entirely¡¡successful¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡true¡¡that¡¡the¡¡labor¡¡conflicts¡¡arose¡¡over¡¡differences¡¡which¡¡only¡¡indirectly¡¡involved¡¡constitutional¡¡questions¡£¡¡The¡¡aims¡¡of¡¡both¡¡the¡¡Knights¡¡of¡¡Labor¡¡and¡¡of¡¡the¡¡American¡¡Federation¡¡were¡¡primarily¡¡economic¡¡and¡¡both¡¡organizations¡¡were¡¡opposed¡¡to¡¡agitation¡¡of¡¡a¡¡distinctively¡¡political¡¡character¡£¡¡But¡¡parallel¡¡with¡¡the¡¡labor¡¡agitation£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡communication¡¡with¡¡it£»¡¡there¡¡were¡¡radical¡¡reform¡¡movements¡¡of¡¡a¡¡type¡¡unknown¡¡before¡£¡¡There¡¡was¡¡now¡¡to¡¡arise¡¡a¡¡socialistic¡¡movement¡¡opposed¡¡to¡¡traditional¡¡constitutionalism£»¡¡and¡¡therefore¡¡viewed¡¡with¡¡alarm¡¡in¡¡many¡¡parts¡¡of¡¡the¡¡country¡£¡¡Veneration¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Constitution¡¡of¡¡1787¡¡was¡¡practically¡¡a¡¡national¡¡sentiment¡¡which¡¡had¡¡lasted¡¡from¡¡the¡¡time¡¡the¡¡Union¡¡was¡¡successfully¡¡established¡¡until¡¡the¡¡Cleveland¡¡era¡£¡¡However¡¡violent¡¡political¡¡differences¡¡in¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡public¡¡policy¡¡might¡¡be£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡the¡¡invariable¡¡rule¡¡that¡¡proposals¡¡must¡¡claim¡¡a¡¡constitutional¡¡sanction¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡Civil¡¡War£»¡¡both¡¡sides¡¡felt¡¡themselves¡¡to¡¡be¡¡fighting¡¡in¡¡defense¡¡of¡¡the¡¡traditional¡¡Constitution¡£

The¡¡appeal¡¡to¡¡antiquityeven¡¡such¡¡a¡¡moderate¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡antiquity¡¡as¡¡may¡¡be¡¡claimed¡¡for¡¡American¡¡institutionshas¡¡always¡¡been¡¡the¡¡staple¡¡argument¡¡in¡¡American¡¡political¡¡controversy¡£¡¡The¡¡views¡¡and¡¡intentions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Fathers¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Constitution¡¡are¡¡exhibited¡¡not¡¡so¡¡much¡¡for¡¡instruction¡¡as¡¡for¡¡imitation£»¡¡and¡¡by¡¡means¡¡of¡¡glosses¡¡and¡¡interpretations¡¡conclusions¡¡may¡¡be¡¡reached¡¡which¡¡would¡¡have¡¡surprised¡¡the¡¡Fathers¡¡to¡¡whom¡¡they¡¡are¡¡imputed¡£¡¡Those¡¡who¡¡examine¡¡the¡¡records¡¡of¡¡the¡¡formative¡¡period¡¡of¡¡American¡¡institutions£»¡¡not¡¡to¡¡obtain¡¡material¡¡for¡¡a¡¡case¡¡but¡¡simply¡¡to¡¡ascertain¡¡the¡¡facts£»¡¡will¡¡readily¡¡observe¡¡that¡¡what¡¡is¡¡known¡¡as¡¡the¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡strict¡¡construction¡¡dates¡¡only¡¡from¡¡the¡¡organization¡¡of¡¡national¡¡parties¡¡under¡¡the¡¡Constitution¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡an¡¡invention¡¡of¡¡the¡¡opposition¡¡to¡¡Federalist¡¡rule¡¡and¡¡was¡¡not¡¡held¡¡by¡¡the¡¡makers¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Constitution¡¡themselves¡£¡¡The¡¡main¡¡concern¡¡of¡¡the¡¡framers¡¡was¡¡to¡¡get¡¡power¡¡for¡¡the¡¡National¡¡Government£»¡¡and¡¡they¡¡went¡¡as¡¡far¡¡as¡¡they¡¡could¡¡with¡¡such¡¡success¡¡that¡¡striking¡¡instances¡¡may¡¡be¡¡culled¡¡from¡¡the¡¡writings¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Fathers¡¡showing¡¡that¡¡the¡¡scope¡¡they¡¡contemplated¡¡has¡¡yet¡¡to¡¡be¡¡attained¡£¡¡Strict¡¡construction¡¡affords¡¡a¡¡short¡¡and¡¡easy¡¡way¡¡of¡¡avoiding¡¡troublesome¡¡issuesalways¡¡involved¡¡in¡¡unforeseen¡¡national¡¡developmentsby¡¡substituting¡¡the¡¡question¡¡of¡¡constitutional¡¡power¡¡for¡¡a¡¡question¡¡of¡¡public¡¡propriety¡£¡¡But¡¡this¡¡method¡¡has¡¡the¡¡disadvantage£»¡¡that¡¡it¡¡belittles¡¡the¡¡Constitution¡¡by¡¡making¡¡it¡¡an¡¡obstacle¡¡to¡¡progress¡£¡¡Running¡¡through¡¡much¡¡political¡¡controversy¡¡in¡¡the¡¡United¡¡States¡¡is¡¡the¡¡argument¡¡that£»¡¡even¡¡granting¡¡that¡¡a¡¡proposal¡¡has¡¡all¡¡the¡¡merit¡¡claimed¡¡for¡¡it£»¡¡nevertheless¡¡it¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡adopted¡¡because¡¡the¡¡Constitution¡¡is¡¡against¡¡it¡£¡¡By¡¡strict¡¡logical¡¡inference¡¡the¡¡rejoinder¡¡then¡¡comes¡¡that£»¡¡if¡¡so£»¡¡the¡¡Constitution¡¡is¡¡no¡¡longer¡¡an¡¡instrument¡¡of¡¡national¡¡advantage¡£¡¡The¡¡traditional¡¡attachment¡¡of¡¡the¡¡American¡¡people¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Constitution¡¡has¡¡indeed¡¡been¡¡so¡¡strong¡¡that¡¡they¡¡have¡¡been¡¡loath¡¡to¡¡accept¡¡the¡¡inference¡¡that¡¡the¡¡Constitution¡¡is¡¡out¡¡of¡¡date£»¡¡although¡¡the¡¡quality¡¡of¡¡legislation¡¡at¡¡Washington¡¡kept¡¡persistently¡¡suggesting¡¡that¡¡view¡¡of¡¡the¡¡case¡£

The¡¡failures¡¡and¡¡disappointments¡¡resulting¡¡from¡¡the¡¡series¡¡of¡¡national¡¡elections¡¡from¡¡1874¡¡to¡¡1884£»¡¡at¡¡last£»¡¡made¡¡an¡¡opening¡¡for¡¡party¡¡movements¡¡voicing¡¡the¡¡popular¡¡discontent¡¡and¡¡openly¡¡antagonistic¡¡to¡¡the¡¡traditional¡¡Constitution¡£¡¡The¡¡Socialist¡¡Labor¡¡party¡¡held¡¡its¡¡first¡¡national¡¡convention¡¡in¡¡1877¡£¡¡Its¡¡mem

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