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certain freshness and a suitable 'entourage。'  It is strange to observe



that the most effective use of Scripture phraseology arises out of the



application of it in a sense not intended by the author。  (c) Another



caution:  metaphors differ in different languages; and the translator will



often be compelled to substitute one for another; or to paraphrase them;



not giving word for word; but diffusing over several words the more



concentrated thought of the original。  The Greek of Plato often goes beyond



the English in its imagery: compare Laws; (Greek); Rep。; etc。  Or again the



modern word; which in substance is the nearest equivalent to the Greek; may



be found to include associations alien to Greek life:  e。g。 (Greek);



'jurymen;' (Greek); 'the bourgeoisie。'  (d) The translator has also to



provide expressions for philosophical terms of very indefinite meaning in



the more definite language of modern philosophy。  And he must not allow



discordant elements to enter into the work。  For example; in translating



Plato; it would equally be an anachronism to intrude on him the feeling and



spirit of the Jewish or Christian Scriptures or the technical terms of the



Hegelian or Darwinian philosophy。







(7) As no two words are precise equivalents (just as no two leaves of the



forest are exactly similar); it is a mistaken attempt at precision always



to translate the same Greek word by the same English word。  There is no



reason why in the New Testament (Greek) should always be rendered



'righteousness;' or (Greek) 'covenant。'  In such cases the translator may



be allowed to employ two wordssometimes when the two meanings occur in



the same passage; varying them by an 'or'e。g。 (Greek); 'science' or



'knowledge;' (Greek); 'idea' or 'class;' (Greek); 'temperance' or



'prudence;'at the point where the change of meaning occurs。  If



translations are intended not for the Greek scholar but for the general



reader; their worst fault will be that they sacrifice the general effect



and meaning to the over…precise rendering of words and forms of speech。







(8) There is no kind of literature in English which corresponds to the



Greek Dialogue; nor is the English language easily adapted to it。  The



rapidity and abruptness of question and answer; the constant repetition of



(Greek); etc。; which Cicero avoided in Latin (de Amicit); the frequent



occurrence of expletives; would; if reproduced in a translation; give



offence to the reader。  Greek has a freer and more frequent use of the



Interrogative; and is of a more passionate and emotional character; and



therefore lends itself with greater readiness to the dialogue form。  Most



of the so…called English Dialogues are but poor imitations of Plato; which



fall very far short of the original。  The breath of conversation; the



subtle adjustment of question and answer; the lively play of fancy; the



power of drawing characters; are wanting in them。  But the Platonic



dialogue is a drama as well as a dialogue; of which Socrates is the central



figure; and there are lesser performers as well:the insolence of



Thrasymachus; the anger of Callicles and Anytus; the patronizing style of



Protagoras; the self…consciousness of Prodicus and Hippias; are all part of



the entertainment。 To reproduce this living image the same sort of effort



is required as in translating poetry。  The language; too; is of a finer



quality; the mere prose English is slow in lending itself to the form of



question and answer; and so the ease of conversation is lost; and at the



same time the dialectical precision with which the steps of the argument



are drawn out is apt to be impaired。







II。  In the Introductions to the Dialogues there have been added some



essays on modern philosophy; and on political and social life。  The chief



subjects discussed in these are Utility; Communism; the Kantian and



Hegelian philosophies; Psychology; and the Origin of Language。  (There have



been added also in the Third Edition remarks on other subjects。  A list of



the most important of these additions is given at the end of this Preface。)







Ancient and modern philosophy throw a light upon one another:  but they



should be compared; not confounded。  Although the connexion between them is



sometimes accidental; it is often real。  The same questions are discussed



by them under different conditions of language and civilization; but in



some cases a mere word has survived; while nothing or hardly anything of



the pre…Socratic; Platonic; or Aristotelian meaning is retained。  There are



other questions familiar to the moderns; which have no place in ancient



philosophy。  The world has grown older in two thousand years; and has



enlarged its stock of ideas and methods of reasoning。  Yet the germ of



modern thought is found in ancient; and we may claim to have inherited;



notwithstanding many accidents of time and place; the spirit of Greek



philosophy。  There is; however; no continuous growth of the one into the



other; but a new beginning; partly artificial; partly arising out of the



questionings of the mind itself; and also receiving a stimulus from the



study of ancient writings。







Considering the great and fundamental differences which exist in ancient



and modern philosophy; it seems best that we should at first study them



separately; and seek for the interpretation of either; especially of the



ancient; from itself only; comparing the same author with himself and with



his contemporaries; and with the general state of thought and feeling



prevalent in his age。  Afterwards comes the remoter light which they cast



on one another。  We begin to feel that the ancients had the same thoughts



as ourselves; the same difficulties which characterize all periods of



transition; almost the same opposition between science and religion。 



Although we cannot maintain that ancient and modern philosophy are one and



continuous (as has been affirmed with more truth respecting ancient and



modern history); for they are separated by an interval of a thousand years;



yet they seem to recur in a sort of cycle; and we are surprised to find



that the new is ever old; and that the teaching of the past has still a



meaning for us。







III。  In the preface to the first edition I expressed a strong opinion at



variance with Mr。 Grote's; that the so…called Epistles of Plato were



spurious。  His friend and editor; Professor Bain; thinks that I ought to



give the reasons why I differ from so eminent an authority。  Reserving the



fuller discussion of the question for another place; I will shortly defend



my opinion by the following arguments:







(a) Because almost all epistles purporting to be of the classical age of



Greek literature are forgeries。  (Compare Bentley's Works (Dyce's



Edition)。)  Of all documents this class are the least likely to be



preserved and the most likely to be invented。  The ancient world swarmed



with them; the great libraries stimulated the demand for them; and at a



time when there was no regular publication of books; they easily crept into



the world。







(b) When one epistle out of a number is spurious; the remainder of the



series cannot be admitted to be genuine; unless there be some independent



ground for thinking them so:  when all but one are spurious; overwhelming



evidence is required of the genuineness of the one:  when they are all



similar in style or motive; like witnesses who agree in the same tale; they



stand or fall together。  But no one; not even Mr。 Grote; would maintain



that all the Epistles of Plato are genuine; and very few critics think that



more than one of them is so。  And they are clearly all written from the



same motive; whether serious or only literary。  Nor is there an example in



Greek antiquity of a series of Epistles; continuous and yet coinciding with



a succession of events extending over a great number of years。







The external probability therefore against them is enormous; and the



internal probability is not less:  for they are trivial and unmeaning;



devoid of delicacy and subtlety; wanting in a single fine expression。  And



even if this be matter of dispute; there can be no dispute that there are



found in them many plagiarisms; inappropriately borrowed; which is a common



note of forgery。  They imitate Plato; who never imitates either himself or



any one else; reminiscences of the Republic and the Laws are continually



recurring in them; they are too like him and also too unlike him; to be



genuine (see especially Karsten; Commentio Critica de Platoni

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