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at　the　foot　of　the　Alps；　owing　to　the　influence　of　Italy；　Greece；



and　the　transport　trade　by　land；　on　the　Rhine；　the　Elbe；　and　the



Danube；　by　means　of　viticulture　and　the　wine　trade；　owing　to　the



exceptional　fertility　of　the　soil　and　the　facilities　of　water



communication；　which　in　the　Middle　Ages　was　of　still　greater



importance　than　even　in　our　days；　because　of　the　wretched　condition



of　the　roads　and　the　general　state　of　insecurity。



　　　　This　diversity　of　origin　will　explain　the　diversity



characterising　the　several　confederations　of　German　cities；　such　as



the　Hanseatic；　the　Rhenish；　the　Swabian；　the　Dutch；　and　the



Helvetic。



　　　　Though　they　continued　powerful　for　a　time　owing　to　the　spirit



of　youthful　freedom　which　pervaded　them；　yet　these　leagues　lacked



the　internal　guarantee　of　stability；　the　principle　of　unity；　the



cement。　Separated　from　each　other　by　the　estates　of　the　nobility；



by　the　serfdom　of　the　population　of　the　country；　their　union　was



doomed　sooner　or　later　to　break　down；　owing　to　the　gradual　increase



and　enrichment　of　the　agricultural　population；　among　whom；　through



the　power　of　the　princes；　the　principle　of　unity　was　maintained。



The　cities；　inasmuch　as　they　tended　to　promote　the　prosperity　of



agriculture；　by　so　doing　necessarily　were　working　at　their　own



effacement；　unless　they　contrived　to　incorporate　the　agricultural



classes　or　the　nobility　as　members　of　their　unions。　For　the



accomplishment　of　that　object；　however；　they　lacked　the　requisite



higher　political　instincts　and　knowledge。　Their　political　vision



seldom　extended　beyond　their　own　city　walls。



　　　　Two　only　of　these　confederations；　Switzerland　and　the　Seven



United　Provinces；　actually　carried　out　this　incorporation；　and　that



not　as　the　result　of　reflection；　but　because　they　were　compelled　to



it；　and　favoured　by　circumstances；　and　for　that　reason　those



confederations　still　exist。　The　Swiss　Confederation　is　nothing　but



a　conglomerate　of　German　imperial　cities；　established　and　cemented



together　by　the　free　populations　occupying　the　intervening　tracts



of　country。



　　　　The　remaining　leagues　of　German　cities　were　ruined　owing　to



their　contempt　for　the　rural　population；　and　from　their　absurd



burgher　arrogance；　which　delighted　in　keeping　that　population　in



subjection；　rather　than　in　raising　them　to　their　own　level。



　　　　These　cities　could　only　have　attained　unity　by　means　of　an



hereditary　royal　authority。　But　this　authority　in　Germany　lay　in



the　hands　of　the　princes；　who；　in　order　to　avert　restraints　upon



their　own　arbitrary　rule；　and　to　keep　both　the　cities　and　the　minor



nobles　in　subjection；　were　interested　in　resisting　the



establishment　of　an　hereditary　empire。



　　　　Hence　the　persevering　adherence　to　the　idea　of　the　Imperial



Roman　Empire　amongst　German　kings。　Only　at　the　head　of　armies　were



the　emperors　rulers；　only　when　they　went　to　war　were　they　able　to



bring　together　princes　and　cities　under　their　banner。　Hence　their



protection　of　civic　liberty　in　Germany；　and　their　hostility　to　it



and　persecution　of　it　in　Italy。



　　　　The　expeditions　to　Rome　not　only　weakened　more　and　more　the



kingly　power　in　Germany；　they　weakened　those　very　dynasties　through



which；　within　the　Empire；　in　the　heart　of　the　nation；　a



consolidated　power　might　have　grown　up。　But　with　the　extinction　of



the　House　of　Hohenstaufen　the　nucleus　of　consolidated　power　was



broken　up　into　a　thousand　fragments。



　　　　The　sense　of　the　impossibility　of　consolidating　the　heart　of



the　nation　impelled　the　House　of　Hapsburg；　originally　so　weak　and



poor；　to　utilise　the　nation's　vigour　in　founding　a　consolidated



hereditary　monarchy　on　the　south…eastern　frontier　of　the　German



Empire；　by　subjugating　alien　races；　a　policy　which　in　the　northeast



was　imitated　by　the　Margraves　of　Brandenburg。　Thus　in　the



south…east　and　north…east　there　arose　hereditary　sovereignties



founded　upon　the　dominion　over　alien　races；　while　in　the　two



western　corners　of　the　land　two　republics　grew　into　existence　which



continually　separated　themselves　more　and　more　from　the　parent



nation；　and　within；　in　the　nation's　heart；　disintegration；



impotence；　and　dissolution　continually　progressed。　The　misfortunes



of　the　German　nation　were　completed　by　the　inventions　of　gunpowder



and　of　the　art　of　printing；　the　revival　of　the　Roman　law；　the



Reformation；　and　lastly　the　discovery　of　America　and　of　the　new



route　to　India。



　　　　The　intellectual；　social；　and　economic　revolution　which　we　have



described　produced　divisions　and　disruption　between　the　constituent



members　of　the　Empire；　disunion　between　the　princes；　disunion



between　the　cities；　disunion　even　between　the　various　guilds　of



individual　cities；　and　between　neighbours　of　every　rank。　The



energies　of　the　nation　were　now　diverted　from　the　pursuit　of



industry；　agriculture；　trade；　and　navigation；　from　the　acquisition



of　colonies；　the　amelioration　of　internal　institutions；　in　fact



from　every　kind　of　substantial　improvement；　the　people　contended



about　dogmas　and　the　heritage　of　the　Church。



　　　　At　the　same　time　came　the　decline　of　the　Hanseatic　League　and



of　Venice；　and　with　it　the　decline　of　Germany's　wholesale　trade；



and　of　the　power　and　liberties　of　the　German　cities　both　in　the



north　and　in　the　south。



　　　　Then　came　the　Thirty　Years'　War　with　its　devastations　of　all



territories　and　cities。　Holland　and　Switzerland　seceded；　while　the



fairest　provinces　of　the　Empire　were　conquered　by　France。　Whereas



formerly　single　cities；　such　as　Strasburg；　N黵nberg；　Augsburg；　had



surpassed　in　power　entire　electorates；　they　now　sank　into　utter



impotence　in　consequence　of　the　introduction　of　standing　armies。



　　　　If　before　this　revolution　the　cities　and　the　royal　power　had



been　more　consolidated　　if　a　king　exclusively　belonging　to　the



German　nation　had　obtained　a　complete　mastery　of　the　Reformation；



and　had　carried　it　out　in　the　interests　of　the　unity；　power；　and



freedom　of　the　nation　　how　very　differently　would　the



agriculture；　industry；　and　trade　of　the　Germans　have　been



developed。　By　the　side　of　considerations　such　as　these；　how



pitiable　and　unpractical　seems　that　theory　of　political　economy



which　would　have　us　refer　the　material　welfare　of　nations　solely　to



the　production　of　individuals；　wholly　losing　sight　of　the　fact　that



the　producing　power　of　all　individuals　is　to　a　great　extent



determined　by　the　social　and　political　circumstances　of　the　nation。



The　introduction　of　the　Roman　law　weakened　no　nation　so　much　as　the



German。　The　unspeakable　confusion　which　it　brought　into　the　legal



status　and　relations　of　private　individuals；　was　not　the　worst　of



its　bad　effects。　More　mischievous　was　it　by　far；　in　that　it　created



a　caste　of　learned　men　and　jurists　differing　from　the　people　in



spirit　and　language；　which　treated　the　people　as　a　class　unlearned



in　the　law；　as　minors；　which　denied　the　authority　of　all　sound



human　understanding；　which　everywhere　set　up　secrecy　in　the　room　of



publicity；　which；　living　in　the　most　abject　dependence　and　living



upon　arbitrary　power；　everywhere　advocated　it　and　defended　its



interests；　everywhere　gnawed　at　the　roots　of　liberty。　Thus　we　see



even　to　the　beginning　of　the　eighteenth　century　in　Germany；



barbarism　in　literature　and　language；　barbarism　in　legislation；



State　administration　and　administration　of　justice；　barbarism　in



agriculture；　decline　of　industry　and　of　all　trade　upon　a　large



scale；　want　of　unity　and　of　force　in　national　cohesion；



powerlessness　and　weakness　on　all　hands　in　dealing　with　foreign



nations。



　　　　One　thing　only　the　Germans　had　preserved；　that　was　their



aboriginal　character；　their　love　of　industry；　order；　thrift；　and



moderation；　their　perseverance　and　endurance　in　research　and　in



business；　their　honest　striving　after　improvement；　and　a



considerable　natural　measure　of　morality；　prudence；　and



circumspection。



　　　　This　character　both　the　rulers　and　the　ruled　had　in　common。



After　the　almost　total　decay　of　nationality　and　the　restoration　of



tranquillity；　people　began　in　some　individual　isolated　circles　to



introduce　order；　improvement；　and　progress。　Nowhere　was　witnessed



more　zeal　in　cherishing　education；　manners；　religion；　art；　and



science；　nowhere　was　absolute　power　exercised　with　greater



moderation　or　with　more　advantage　to　general　enlightenment；　order；



and　morality；　to　the　reform　of　abuses　and　the　advancement　of　the



common　welfare。



　　　　The　foundation　for　the　revival