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                           ON SOPHISTICAL REFUTATIONS





                                  by Aristotle





                     translated by W。 A。 Pickard´Cambridge













                              Book I







                                 1







  LET us now discuss sophistic refutations察i。e。 what appear to be



refutations but are really fallacies instead。 We will begin in the



natural order with the first。



  That some reasonings are genuine察while others seem to be so but are



not察is evident。 This happens with arguments察as also elsewhere



through a certain likeness between the genuine and the sham。 For



physically some people are in a vigorous condition察while others



merely seem to be so by blowing and rigging themselves out as the



tribesmen do their victims for sacrifice察and some people are



beautiful thanks to their beauty察while others seem to be so察by



dint of embellishing themselves。 So it is察too察with inanimate things



for of these察too察some are really silver and others gold察while



others are not and merely seem to be such to our sense察e。g。 things



made of litharge and tin seem to be of silver察while those made of



yellow metal look golden。 In the same way both reasoning and



refutation are sometimes genuine察sometimes not察though inexperience



may make them appear so此for inexperienced people obtain only察as it



were察a distant view of these things。 For reasoning rests on certain



statements such that they involve necessarily the assertion of



something other than what has been stated察through what has been



stated此refutation is reasoning involving the contradictory of the



given conclusion。 Now some of them do not really achieve this



though they seem to do so for a number of reasons察and of these the



most prolific and usual domain is the argument that turns upon names



only。 It is impossible in a discussion to bring in the actual things



discussed此we use their names as symbols instead of them察and



therefore we suppose that what follows in the names察follows in the



things as well察just as people who calculate suppose in regard to



their counters。 But the two cases names and things are not alike。



For names are finite and so is the sum´total of formulae察while things



are infinite in number。 Inevitably察then察the same formulae察and a



single name察have a number of meanings。 Accordingly just as察in



counting察those who are not clever in manipulating their counters



are taken in by the experts察in the same way in arguments too those



who are not well acquainted with the force of names misreason both



in their own discussions and when they listen to others。 For this



reason察then察and for others to be mentioned later察there exists



both reasoning and refutation that is apparent but not real。 Now for



some people it is better worth while to seem to be wise察than to be



wise without seeming to be for the art of the sophist is the



semblance of wisdom without the reality察and the sophist is one who



makes money from an apparent but unreal wisdom察for them察then察it is



clearly essential also to seem to accomplish the task of a wise man



rather than to accomplish it without seeming to do so。 To reduce it to



a single point of contrast it is the business of one who knows a



thing察himself to avoid fallacies in the subjects which he knows and



to be able to show up the man who makes them察and of these



accomplishments the one depends on the faculty to render an answer



and the other upon the securing of one。 Those察then察who would be



sophists are bound to study the class of arguments aforesaid此for it



is worth their while此for a faculty of this kind will make a man



seem to be wise察and this is the purpose they happen to have in view。



  Clearly察then察there exists a class of arguments of this kind察and



it is at this kind of ability that those aim whom we call sophists。



Let us now go on to discuss how many kinds there are of sophistical



arguments察and how many in number are the elements of which this



faculty is composed察and how many branches there happen to be of



this inquiry察and the other factors that contribute to this art。







                                 2







  Of arguments in dialogue form there are four classes



  Didactic察Dialectical察Examination´arguments察and Contentious



arguments。 Didactic arguments are those that reason from the



principles appropriate to each subject and not from the opinions



held by the answerer for the learner should take things on trust



dialectical arguments are those that reason from premisses generally



accepted察to the contradictory of a given thesis



examination´arguments are those that reason from premisses which are



accepted by the answerer and which any one who pretends to possess



knowledge of the subject is bound to know´in what manner察has been



defined in another treatise此contentious arguments are those that



reason or appear to reason to a conclusion from premisses that



appear to be generally accepted but are not so。 The subject察then



of demonstrative arguments has been discussed in the Analytics



while that of dialectic arguments and examination´arguments has been



discussed elsewhere此let us now proceed to speak of the arguments used



in competitions and contests。



                                 3







  First we must grasp the number of aims entertained by those who



argue as competitors and rivals to the death。 These are five in



number察refutation察fallacy察paradox察solecism察and fifthly to



reduce the opponent in the discussion to babbling´i。e。 to constrain



him to repeat himself a number of times此or it is to produce the



appearance of each of these things without the reality。 For they



choose if possible plainly to refute the other party察or as the second



best to show that he is committing some fallacy察or as a third best to



lead him into paradox察or fourthly to reduce him to solecism察i。e。



to make the answerer察in consequence of the argument察to use an



ungrammatical expression察or察as a last resort察to make him repeat



himself。







                                 4







  There are two styles of refutation此for some depend on the



language used察while some are independent of language。 Those ways of



producing the false appearance of an argument which depend on language



are six in number此they are ambiguity察amphiboly察combination



division of words察accent察form of expression。 Of this we may assure



ourselves both by induction察and by syllogistic proof based on



this´and it may be on other assumptions as well´that this is the



number of ways in which we might fall to mean the same thing by the



same names or expressions。 Arguments such as the following depend upon



ambiguity。 'Those learn who know此for it is those who know their



letters who learn the letters dictated to them'。 For to 'learn' is



ambiguous察it signifies both 'to understand' by the use of



knowledge察and also 'to acquire knowledge'。 Again察'Evils are good



for what needs to be is good察and evils must needs be'。 For 'what



needs to be' has a double meaning此it means what is inevitable察as



often is the case with evils察too for evil of some kind is



inevitable察while on the other hand we say of good things as well



that they 'need to be'。 Moreover察'The same man is both seated and



standing and he is both sick and in health此for it is he who stood



up who is standing察and he who is recovering who is in health此but



it is the seated man who stood up察and the sick man who was



recovering'。 For 'The sick man does so and so'察or 'has so and so done



to him' is not single in meaning此sometimes it means 'the man who is



sick or is seated now'察sometimes 'the man who was sick formerly'。



Of course察the man who was recovering was the sick man察who really was



sick at the time此but the man who is in health is not sick at the same



time此he is 'the sick man' in the sense not that he is sick now察but



that he was sick formerly。 Examples such as the following depend



upon amphiboly此'I wish that you the enemy may capture'。 Also the



thesis察'There must be knowledge of what one knows'此for it is



possible by this phrase to mean that knowledge belongs to both the



knower and the known。 Also察'There must be sight of what one sees此one



sees the pillar此ergo the pillar has sight'。 Also察'What you profess



to´be察that you profess to´be此you profess a stone to´be此ergo you



profess´to´be a stone'。 Also察'Speaking of the silent is possible'



for 'speaking of the silent' also has a double meaning此it may mean



that the speaker is silent or that the things of which he speaks are



so。 There are three varieties of these ambiguities and amphibolies



1 When either the expression or the name has strictly more t

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