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ON SOPHISTICAL REFUTATIONS
by Aristotle
translated by W。 A。 Pickard´Cambridge
Book I
1
LET us now discuss sophistic refutations察i。e。 what appear to be
refutations but are really fallacies instead。 We will begin in the
natural order with the first。
That some reasonings are genuine察while others seem to be so but are
not察is evident。 This happens with arguments察as also elsewhere
through a certain likeness between the genuine and the sham。 For
physically some people are in a vigorous condition察while others
merely seem to be so by blowing and rigging themselves out as the
tribesmen do their victims for sacrifice察and some people are
beautiful thanks to their beauty察while others seem to be so察by
dint of embellishing themselves。 So it is察too察with inanimate things
for of these察too察some are really silver and others gold察while
others are not and merely seem to be such to our sense察e。g。 things
made of litharge and tin seem to be of silver察while those made of
yellow metal look golden。 In the same way both reasoning and
refutation are sometimes genuine察sometimes not察though inexperience
may make them appear so此for inexperienced people obtain only察as it
were察a distant view of these things。 For reasoning rests on certain
statements such that they involve necessarily the assertion of
something other than what has been stated察through what has been
stated此refutation is reasoning involving the contradictory of the
given conclusion。 Now some of them do not really achieve this
though they seem to do so for a number of reasons察and of these the
most prolific and usual domain is the argument that turns upon names
only。 It is impossible in a discussion to bring in the actual things
discussed此we use their names as symbols instead of them察and
therefore we suppose that what follows in the names察follows in the
things as well察just as people who calculate suppose in regard to
their counters。 But the two cases names and things are not alike。
For names are finite and so is the sum´total of formulae察while things
are infinite in number。 Inevitably察then察the same formulae察and a
single name察have a number of meanings。 Accordingly just as察in
counting察those who are not clever in manipulating their counters
are taken in by the experts察in the same way in arguments too those
who are not well acquainted with the force of names misreason both
in their own discussions and when they listen to others。 For this
reason察then察and for others to be mentioned later察there exists
both reasoning and refutation that is apparent but not real。 Now for
some people it is better worth while to seem to be wise察than to be
wise without seeming to be for the art of the sophist is the
semblance of wisdom without the reality察and the sophist is one who
makes money from an apparent but unreal wisdom察for them察then察it is
clearly essential also to seem to accomplish the task of a wise man
rather than to accomplish it without seeming to do so。 To reduce it to
a single point of contrast it is the business of one who knows a
thing察himself to avoid fallacies in the subjects which he knows and
to be able to show up the man who makes them察and of these
accomplishments the one depends on the faculty to render an answer
and the other upon the securing of one。 Those察then察who would be
sophists are bound to study the class of arguments aforesaid此for it
is worth their while此for a faculty of this kind will make a man
seem to be wise察and this is the purpose they happen to have in view。
Clearly察then察there exists a class of arguments of this kind察and
it is at this kind of ability that those aim whom we call sophists。
Let us now go on to discuss how many kinds there are of sophistical
arguments察and how many in number are the elements of which this
faculty is composed察and how many branches there happen to be of
this inquiry察and the other factors that contribute to this art。
2
Of arguments in dialogue form there are four classes
Didactic察Dialectical察Examination´arguments察and Contentious
arguments。 Didactic arguments are those that reason from the
principles appropriate to each subject and not from the opinions
held by the answerer for the learner should take things on trust
dialectical arguments are those that reason from premisses generally
accepted察to the contradictory of a given thesis
examination´arguments are those that reason from premisses which are
accepted by the answerer and which any one who pretends to possess
knowledge of the subject is bound to know´in what manner察has been
defined in another treatise此contentious arguments are those that
reason or appear to reason to a conclusion from premisses that
appear to be generally accepted but are not so。 The subject察then
of demonstrative arguments has been discussed in the Analytics
while that of dialectic arguments and examination´arguments has been
discussed elsewhere此let us now proceed to speak of the arguments used
in competitions and contests。
3
First we must grasp the number of aims entertained by those who
argue as competitors and rivals to the death。 These are five in
number察refutation察fallacy察paradox察solecism察and fifthly to
reduce the opponent in the discussion to babbling´i。e。 to constrain
him to repeat himself a number of times此or it is to produce the
appearance of each of these things without the reality。 For they
choose if possible plainly to refute the other party察or as the second
best to show that he is committing some fallacy察or as a third best to
lead him into paradox察or fourthly to reduce him to solecism察i。e。
to make the answerer察in consequence of the argument察to use an
ungrammatical expression察or察as a last resort察to make him repeat
himself。
4
There are two styles of refutation此for some depend on the
language used察while some are independent of language。 Those ways of
producing the false appearance of an argument which depend on language
are six in number此they are ambiguity察amphiboly察combination
division of words察accent察form of expression。 Of this we may assure
ourselves both by induction察and by syllogistic proof based on
this´and it may be on other assumptions as well´that this is the
number of ways in which we might fall to mean the same thing by the
same names or expressions。 Arguments such as the following depend upon
ambiguity。 'Those learn who know此for it is those who know their
letters who learn the letters dictated to them'。 For to 'learn' is
ambiguous察it signifies both 'to understand' by the use of
knowledge察and also 'to acquire knowledge'。 Again察'Evils are good
for what needs to be is good察and evils must needs be'。 For 'what
needs to be' has a double meaning此it means what is inevitable察as
often is the case with evils察too for evil of some kind is
inevitable察while on the other hand we say of good things as well
that they 'need to be'。 Moreover察'The same man is both seated and
standing and he is both sick and in health此for it is he who stood
up who is standing察and he who is recovering who is in health此but
it is the seated man who stood up察and the sick man who was
recovering'。 For 'The sick man does so and so'察or 'has so and so done
to him' is not single in meaning此sometimes it means 'the man who is
sick or is seated now'察sometimes 'the man who was sick formerly'。
Of course察the man who was recovering was the sick man察who really was
sick at the time此but the man who is in health is not sick at the same
time此he is 'the sick man' in the sense not that he is sick now察but
that he was sick formerly。 Examples such as the following depend
upon amphiboly此'I wish that you the enemy may capture'。 Also the
thesis察'There must be knowledge of what one knows'此for it is
possible by this phrase to mean that knowledge belongs to both the
knower and the known。 Also察'There must be sight of what one sees此one
sees the pillar此ergo the pillar has sight'。 Also察'What you profess
to´be察that you profess to´be此you profess a stone to´be此ergo you
profess´to´be a stone'。 Also察'Speaking of the silent is possible'
for 'speaking of the silent' also has a double meaning此it may mean
that the speaker is silent or that the things of which he speaks are
so。 There are three varieties of these ambiguities and amphibolies
1 When either the expression or the name has strictly more t