political economy-第9节
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ion； which perhaps he may be forced to abandon at a moment's warning。 But in the security of complete civilization； he regards his immovable possessions as more completely safe than any other kind of wealth。 In the deserts of Arabia and Tartary； in the savannahs of America； before civilization has begun； in the pastures of the Campagna di Roma； or the Capitanata de la Pouille； after it has ended； men are contented with the natural fruits of the ground； with grass for their cattle to browse； and if those vast deserts yet retain any value； they owe it less to the slight labour by which the proprietor has inclosed them； than to the labour by which the herdsman has multiplied the oxen and sheep which feed upon them。 When the population of such deserts has begun to increase； and an agricultural life to succeed that of shepherds； men still abstain from committing to the ground any labour whose fruit they cannot gather till after many years have elapsed。 The husbandman tills； to reap in the following season； the course of a twelvemonth is sufficient to give back all his advances。 The earth which he has sown； far from gaining a durable value by his labour； is； for a time； impoverished by the fruits it has born。 Instead of seeking to improve it by more judicious cultivation； he gives it back to the desert for repose； and next year tills another portion。 The custom of fallowing； a remnant of this half savage mode of agriculture； continues to our own time； in more than three…fourths of Europe。 But when population and wealth have at last increased so as to make every kind of labour easy； and when social order inspires security enough to induce the husbandman to fix his labour in the ground； and transmit it with the soil to his descendants； improvement altogether changes the appearance of the earth。 Then are formed those plantations of gardens； orchards； vineyards； the enjoyment of which is destined for a late posterity； then are dug those canals for draining or irrigation； which diffuse fertility； then arise upon the hills those hanging terraces； which characterized the agriculture of ancient Canaan。 A quick rotation of crops of a different nature reanimates； instead of exhausting； the strength of the soil； and a numerous population lives on a space； which； according to the primitive system； would hardly have supported a few scores of sheep。 The trade or the manufactures of a country； are not to be called prosperous； because a small number of merchants have amassed immense fortunes in it。 On the contrary； their extraordinary profits almost always testify against the general prosperity of the country。 So likewise； in counties abandoned to pasturage； the profits realized by some rich proprietors ought not to be regarded as indicating a judicious system of agriculture。 Some individuals； it is true； grow rich； but the nation； which the land should maintain； or the food which should support it； are no where to be found。 It is not even certain that the net produce of the land may not diminish； in proportion as its agriculture yields a more abundant produce； and a greater number of citizens live on its fruits； just as we see the net produce of money； or its interest； diminish in proportion as a country becomes more commercial； and contains more capital。 The first proprietors of land were doubtless themselves cultivators； and executed all kinds of field labour； with their children and servants。 To these； in ancient times； were added slaves； the continual state of war； which exists among semi…barbarous societies； having introduced slavery at the remotest era。 The stronger found it more convenient to procure workmen by the abuse of victory than by bargain。 Yet so long as the head of each family laboured along with his children and slaves； the condition of the latter was less wretched； the master felt himself to be of the same nature with his servant； he experienced the same wants and the same fatigue； he desired the same pleasures； and knew； by experience； that he would obtain little work from a man whom he fed badly。 Such was the patriarchal mode of cultivation； that of the golden days of Italy and Greece； such is that of free America； such appears to be that of Africa； in its interior； and such； finally； but without slavery； and therefore with still more domestic comfort； is that of Switzerland； where the peasant proprietor is happier than in any other country of the world。 Among the states of antiquity； the farms under cultivation were small； and the number of freemen labouring in the fields； always greatly surpassed that of slaves。 The former had a full enjoyment of their persons and the fruits of their labour； the latter； degraded rather than unhappy； like the ox； man's companion； which interest teaches him to spare； seldom experienced suffering； want still more rarely。 The head of each family alone receiving the total crop； did not distinguish the rent from the profit or the wages； with the excess of what he wanted for food； he procured the produce of the town in exchange； and this excess supported all other classes of the nation。 But the progress of wealth； of luxury； and idleness； in all the states of antiquity； substituted the servile for the patriarchal mode of cultivation。 The population lost much in happiness and number by this change； the earth gained little in productiveness。 The Roman proprietors extending their patrimonies by the confiscated territories of vanquished states； the Greeks by wealth acquired from trade；first abandoned manual labour； and soon afterwards； despised it。 Fixing their residence in towns； they entrusted the management of their estates to stewards and inspectors of slaves； and from that period； the condition of most part of the country population became intolerable。 Labour； which once been a point of communion betwixt the two ranks of society； now became a barrier of separation； contempt and severity succeeded to affectionate care； punishments were multiplied as they came to be inflicted by inferiors； and as the death of one or several slaves did not lessen the steward's wealth。 Slaves who were ill…fed； ill…teated； ill…recompensed； could not fail to lose all interest in their master's affairs； and almost all understanding。 Far from attending to their business with affection； they felt a secret joy every time they saw their oppressors' wealth diminished； or his hopes deceived。 The study of science； accompanied with habits of observation； certainly advanced the theory of agriculture： but its practice； at the same time； rapidly declined； a fact； which all the agricultural writers of antiquity lament。 The cultivation of land was entirely divested of all that intelligence； affection； and zeal； which had once hastened its success。 The revenues were smaller； the expenses greater； and from that period； it became an object to save labour； more than to augment its produce。 Slaves； after having driven every free cultivator from the fields； were themselves rapidly decreasing in number。 During the decline of the Roman empire； the population of Italy was not less reduced than that of the Agro Romano is in our days； while； at the same time； it had sunk into the that degree of wretchedness and penury。 The cultivation of the colonies situated on the Mexican Gulf was founded； in like manner； on the baneful system of slavery。 it has； in like manner； consumed the population； debased the human species； and deteriorated the system of agriculture。 The negro trade has of course filled up those voids； which the barbarity of planters annually produced in the agricultural population； and doubtless； under a system of culture； such that the man who labours is constantly reduced below the necessaries of life； and the man who does not labour keeps all for himself； the net produce has always been considerable； but the gross produce； with which alone the nation is concerned； has uniformly been inferior to what would have arisen from any other system of cultivation； whilst the condition of more than seven…eighths of the population has continued to be miserable。 The invasions of the Roman empire； by the barbarians； introduced new manners； and； with them； new systems of cultivation。 The conqueror； who had now become proprietor； being much less allured by the enjoyments of luxury； had need of men still more than of wealth。 He had ceased to dwell in towns； he had established himself in the country； and his castle formed a little principality； which he wished to be able to defend by his own strength； and thus he felt the necessity of acquiring the affection of such as depended on him。 A relaxation of the social bond； and the independence of great proprietors； produced the same effects without the limits of the ancient Roman empire as within。 From the epoch of its downfall； masters in every part of Europe began to improve the condition of their dependents； and this return to humanity produced the natural effect； it rapidly increased the population； the wealth； and the happiness of rural labourers。 Different expedients were resorted to for giving slaves and cultivators an interest in life； a property； and an affection for the place of their nativity； as well as for its lord。 Adopted by various states； these expedients produced the
