political economy-第8节
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oduce； in order to leave the net revenue。 The produce of the soil and of manufactories belonged often to climates very distant from those inhabited by their consumers。 A class of men undertook to facilitate all kinds of exchange； on condition of sharing in the profits which it yields。 These men gave money to the producer； at the time when his work was finished and ready for sale； after which having transported the merchandise to the place where it was wanted； they waited the consumer's convenience； and retailed to him in parcels what he could not purchase all at once。 They did service to every one； and repaid themselves for it by the share which is named profits of trade。 The advantage arising from a judicious management of exchanges was the origin of those profits。 In the north； a producer reckoned two measures of his merchandize equivalent to one of southern merchandize。 In the south； on the other hand； a producer reckoned two measures of his merchandize equivalent to one of northern merchandize。 Between two equations so different there was room to cover all the expenses of transport； all the profits of trade； and interest for all the money advanced to carry it on。 In fact； at the sale of such commodities transported by commerce； there must be realized； first the capital repaid to the manufacturer； then the wages of the sailors； carriers； clerks； and all persons employed by the trader； next the interest of all those funds to which he gives movement； and lastly； the mercantile profit。 Society requires something more than wealth； it would not be complete if it contained nothing but productive labourers。 It requires administrators； judges； lawgivers； men employed about its general interests； soldiers and sailors to defend it。 No one of those classes produces any thing； their labour never assumes a material shape； it is not susceptible of accumulation。 Yet without their assistance all the wealth arising from productive labour would be destroyed by violence； and work would cease； if the labourer could not calculate on peaceably enjoying its fruits。 To support this guardian population； a part must be deducted from the funds created annually by labour。 But as the service done to the community； by such persons； how important soever it be； is felt by no one in particular； it cannot； like other services； be an object of exchange。 The community itself was under the necessity of paying it by a forced contribution from the revenues of all。 It was not long； indeed； till this contribution came to be regulated by the persons destined to profit from it； and hence the contributors were loaded without measure； civil and military offices were multiplied far beyond what the public weal required； there was too much government； too much defence of men； who were forced to accept those services； and to pay them； superfluous or even burdensome as they might be； and the rulers of nations； established to protect wealth； were often the main authors of its dilapidation。 Society needs that kind of labour which produces mental enjoyments； and as mental enjoyments are； nearly all； immaterial； the objects destined to satisfy them cannot be accumulated。 Religion； science； the arts； yield happiness to man； their origin is labour； their end enjoyment； but what belongs only to the soul is not capable of being treasured up。 If a nation； however； does not reckon literature and the arts among its wealth； it may reckon literary men and artists； the education they receive； the distinction they acquire； accumulate a high value on their heads； and the labour which they execute being often better paid than that of the most skilled workmen； may thus contribute to the spread of opulence。 Society； in the last place； needs those kinds of labour； the object of which is to take care of the persons； not the fortunes of men。 Such labour may be of the most elevated； or of the most servile kind： according as it requires either the knowledge of nature and the command of her secrets； like the physician's labour； or merely complaisance and obedience to the will of a master； like the footman's labour。 All of them are species of labour intended for enjoyment； and differing from productive labour； only in so far as their effects are incapable of accumulation。 Hence； though they add to the well…being of a state； they do not add to its wealth； and such as are employed in them must live on voluntary contributions drawn from the revenue formed by other kinds of labour。
Chapter 3
Of Territorial Wealth
The riches proceeding from land should be the first to engage the attention of an economist or a legislator。 They are the most necessary of all； because it is from the ground that our subsistence is derived； because they furnish the materials for every other kind of labour； and lastly； because； in preparation； they constantly employ the half； often much more than the half； of all the nation。 The class of people who cultivate the ground are particularly valuable for bodily qualities fitted to make excellent soldiers； and for mental qualities fitted to make good citizens。 The happiness of a rural population is also more easily provided for than that of a city population； the progress of this kind of wealth is more easily followed； and government is more culpable when it allows agriculture to decay； because it almost always lies in the power of government to make it flourish。 The annual revenue of land； or the annual crop； is decomposed； as we observed above； in the following manner。 One part of the fruits； produced by labour； is destined to pay the proprietor for the assistance which the earth has given to the labour of men； and also for the interest of all the capital successively employed to improve the soil。 This portion alone is called the net revenue。 Another part of the fruits replaces what has been consumed in executing the labour to which the crop is due； the seed； and all the cultivator's advances。 Economists call this portion the resumption。 Another part remains for a profit to the person who directed the labours of the ground： it is proportionate to his industry and the capital advanced by him。 Government likewise takes a share of all those fruits； and by various imposts diminishes the proprietor's rent； the cultivator's profit； and the day…labourer's wages； in order to form a revenue for another class of persons。 Nor do the fruits distributed among the workmen； the superintendent of the labour； and the proprietor； entirely remain with them in kind： after having kept a portion requisite for their subsistence； the whole then equally part with what remains； in exchange for objects produced by the industry of towns； and it is by means of this exchange； that all other classes of the nation are supplied with food。 The net revenue of territorial produce is considered to be that portion which remains with proprietors after the expenses of cultivation have been paid。 Proprietors frequently imagine that a system of cultivation is the better； the higher those rents are： what concerns the nation； however； what should engage the economist's undivided attention； is the gross produce； or the total amount of the crop； by which subsistence is provided for the whole nation； and the comfort of all classes is secured。 The former comprehends but the revenue of the rich and idle； the latter farther comprehends the revenue of all such as labour； or cause their capital to labour。 But a gradual increase of the gross produce may itself be the consequence of a state of suffering； … if the population； growing too numerous； can no longer find a sufficient recompense in the wages of labour； and if； struggling without protection against the proprietors of land； to whom limitation of number gives all the advantage of a monopoly； that population is reduced to purchase； by excessive labour； so small an augmentation of produce； as to leave it constantly depressed by want； There is no department of political economy which ought not to be judged in its relation to the happiness of the people in general； and a system of social order is always bad when the greater part of the population suffers under it。 Commercial wealth is augmented and distributed by exchange； and even the produce of the ground； so soon as it is gathered in； belongs likewise to commerce。 Territorial wealth； on the other hand； is created by means of permanent contacts。 With regard to it； the economist's attention should first be directed to the progress of cultivation： next to the mode in which the produce of the harvest is distributed among those who contribute to its growth； and lastly； to the nature of those rights which belong to the proprietors of land； and to the effects resulting from an alienation of their property。 The progress of social order； the additional security； the protection which government holds out to the rights of all； together with the increase of population； induce the cultivator to entrust to the ground； for a longer or shorter period； the labour which constitutes his wealth。 In the timorous condition of barbarianism； he will not； at his own expense； increase the value of an immovable possession； which perhaps he may be forced to abandon at a moment's warning。 But in the security of complet
