political economy-第5节
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uctive power of labour； by dividing it； and to afford a more precise aim to economy； by multiplying the enjoyments which wealth procures。 Thus men； combined in society； produced more than if each had laboured separately； and they preserve better what they have produced； because they feel the value of it better。 Exchange first arose from superabundance： 〃Give me that article； which is of no service to you； and would be useful to me；；； said one of the contacting parties； 〃and I will give you this in return； which is of no service to me； and would be useful to you。〃 Present utility was not； however； the sole measure of things exchanged。 Each estimated for himself the selling price； or the trouble and time bestowed in the production of his own commodity； and compared it with the buying price； or the trouble and time necessary for procuring the required commodity by his own efforts； and no exchange could take place till the two contacting parties； on calculating the matter； had each discovered that it was better thus to procure the commodity wanted than to make it for himself。 This accidental advantage soon pointed out to both a constant source of advantage in trading； whenever the one offered an article which he excelled in making； for an article which the other excelled in making； for each excelled in what he made often； each was unskillful and slow at what he made but seldom。 Now； the more exclusively they devoted themselves to one kind of work； the more dexterity did they acquire in it； the more effectually did they succeed in rendering it easy and expeditious。 This observation produced the division of trades； the husbandman quickly perceived； that he could not make as many agricultural tools by himself； in a month； as the blacksmith would make for him in a day。 The same principle which at first separated the trades of the husbandman； shepherd； smith； and weaver； continued to separate those trades into an indefinite number of departments。 Each felt that； by simplifying the operation committed to him； he would perform it in a manner still more speedy and perfect。 The weaver renounced the business of spinning and dyeing； the spinning of hemp； cotton； wool； and silk； became each separate employment； weavers were still farther subdivided； according to the fabric and the destination of their stuffs； and at every subdivision； each workman； directing his attention to a single object； experienced an increase in his productive powers。 In the interior of each manufactory； this division was again repeated； and still with the same success。 Twenty workmen all laboured at the same thing； but each made it undergo a different operation： and the twenty workmen found that they had accomplished twenty times as much work as when each had laboured separately。 Much more work was executed in the world by the division of labour； but； at the same time； much more was required to supply the consumption。 The wants and the enjoyments of the Solitary； who laboured for himself； were both very limited。 Food； clothing； and lodging； he indeed required； but he did not so much as think of the delicacies； by which the satisfaction of those wants might be converted into pleasure； and still less of the artificial desires； induced by society； which in their gratification become new sources of enjoyment。 The Solitary's aim was merely to amass； that he might afterwards repose。 Before him at no great distance； was a point in the accumulation of wealth； beyond which it would have been foolishness to accumulate more； because his consumption could not be increased proportionably。 But the wants of the social man were infinite； because the society's labour offered him enjoyment infinitely varied。 Whatever wealth he might amass； he could never have occasion to say it is enough； he still found means to convert it into pleasure； and to imagine at least that he applied it to his service。 Trade； the generic name given to the total mass of exchangers； complicated the relation required to subsist between production and consumption； yet far from diminishing； it increased its importance。 At first； every one procured what he himself intended to consume； but when each had come to work for all； the production of all must be consumed by all； and each； in what he produced； must have an eye to the final demand of the society； for which he destined the fruit of his labour。 This demand； though not well ascertained by him； was limited in quantity。 for； in order to continue his expenditure； every one must confine it by certain restrictions； and the sum of those private expenditures constituted that of the society。 The distinction between capital and income； which in the Solitary's case was still confused； became essential in society。 The social man was under the necessity of adjusting his consumption to his income； and the society； of which he formed part； were compelled to observe the same rule； without incurring ruin； they could not annually consume more than their annual income； leaving their capital untouched。 All that they produced； however； was destined for consumption； and if their annual products； when carried to the destined market； found no purchaser； reproduction was arrested； and the nation ruined as before。 We shall attempt to explain this double relation； at once so essential and so delicate； by showing； on the one hand； how income springs from capital； on the other； how what is income for one may be capital for a second。 To the Solitary； every kind of wealth was a provision made beforehand against the moment of necessity； yet still in this provision he distinguished two things … the part which it suited his economy to keep in reserve for immediate； or nearly immediate use； and the part which he would not need before the time when he might obtain it by a new production。 One portion of his corn was to support him till the next harvest； another portion； set apart for seed； was to bring forth its fruit the following year。 The formation of society； the introduction of exchange； allowed him almost indefinitely to multiply this seed； … this fruit…bearing portion of accumulated wealth。 It is what we name capital。 The ground and his animals were all that man could force to work in concert with him； but； in society； the rich man could force the poor to work in concert with him。 After having set apart what corn was necessary till the next harvest； it suited him to employ the remaining surplus of corn in feeding other men； that they might cultivate the ground and make fresh corn for him： that they might spin and weave his hemps and wools； that； in a word； they might take out of his hands the commodity ready for being consumed； and at the expiration of a certain period； return him another commodity； of a greater value； likewise destined for consumption。 Wages were the price at which the rich man obtained the poor man's labour in exchange。 The division of labour had produced the distinction of ranks。 The person who had limited his efforts to perform only one very simple operation in a manufacture； had made himself dependent on whoever chose to employ him。 He no longer produced a complete work； but merely the part of a work； in which he required not only the cooperation of other workmen； but also raw materials； proper implements； and a trader to undertake the exchange of the article which he had contributed to finish。 Whenever he bargained with a master…workman for the exchange of labour against subsistence； the condition he stood in was always disadvantageous； since his need of subsistence and his inability to procure it of himself； were far greater than the master's need of labour； and therefore he almost constantly narrowed his demand to bare necessaries； without which the stipulated labour could not have proceeded； whilst the master alone profited from the increase of productive power brought about by the division of labour。 The master； who hired workmen； was situated； in all points； exactly as the husbandman who sows the ground。 The wages paid to his workmen were a kind of seed which he entrusted to them； and expected in a given time to bring forth fruit。 Like the husbandman； he did not sow all his productive wealth； a part of it had been devoted to such buildings； or machines； or implements； as make labour more easy and productive； just in the way that a part of the husbandman's wealth was devoted to permanent works； destined to render the ground more fertile。 It is thus that we see the different kinds of wealth springing up and separating； whilst each exerts a different influence on its own reproduction。 The funds of consumption； such as domestic necessaries； do not any longer produce fruit； after each has secured them for his own use； fixed capital； such as improvement of the soil； canals of irrigation； and machinery； during the progress of its own slow consumption； co…operates with labour of which it augments the products； and； lastly； circulating capital； such as seed； wages； and raw materials； destined to be wrought； is consumed annually； or even more rapidly； in order to be again re…produced。 It is essentially important to remark； that those three kinds of wealth are all equally advancing towards consumption。 But the first when consumed is absolutely destroyed；
