political economy-第4节
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ew experiments and new observations； some have expanded it by developments； which flow from the principles laid down by him； some have even here and there detected errors in his work； but it has been by following out the truths which he taught and rectifying them by light borrowed from its author。 Never did philosopher effect a more complete revolution in any science： for those even who dissent from his doctrine acknowledge his authority； sometimes they attack； solely because they do not understand him； most commonly； they flatter themselves with the belief of still following； even while they contradict him。 We shall devote the rest of this article to explain the science which he taught us； though in an order different from his。 We shall arrange it under the six following heads： Formation and Progress of Wealth： Territorial Wealth； Commercial Wealth； Money； Taxes； and Population。
Chapter 2
Formation and Progress of Wealth
Man brings into the world with him certain wants； which he must satisfy in order to live； certain desires which lead him to expect happiness from particular enjoyments； and a certain industry or aptitude for labour； which enables him to satisfy the requisitions of both。 His wealth originates in this industry： his wants and desires are its employments。 All that man values is created by his industry； all that he creates is destined to be consumed in satisfying his wants and desires。 But； between the moment of its production by labour； and its consumption by enjoyment； the thing destined for man's use may have an existence more or less durable。 It is this thing； this accumulated and still unconsumed fruit of labour； which is called wealth。 Wealth may exist not only without any sign of exchange； or without money； but even without any possibility of exchange； or without trade。 Suppose a man to be left on a desert island； the undisputed property of this whole island is not wealth； whatever be the natural fertility of its soil； the abundance of the game straying in its forests； of the fish sporting on its shores； or the mines concealed in its bosom。 On the contrary； amid all these benefits presented him by nature； the man may sink to the lowest degree of penury； and die perhaps of hunger。 But； if his industry enables him to catch some of the animals that wander in his woods： and if； instead of consuming them immediately； he reserves them for his future wants； if； in this interval； he gets them tamed and multiplied； so that he can live on their milk； or associate them to his labour； he is then beginning to acquire wealth； because labour has gained him the possession of these animals； and a fresh labour has rendered them domestic。 The measure of his wealth will not be the price； which he might obtain for his property in exchange； because he is debarred from all exchange； but the length of time during which no farther labour will be requisite to satisfy his wants； compared with the extent of those wants。 By subduing those animals； the man has made them his property and wealth； by subduing the ground； he will； in like manner； convert it into property and wealth。 His island is destitute of value so long as no labour has been bestowed on it； but if； instead of consuming its fruits the moment they come to his hand； he reserves them for future want； if he commits them again to the earth； again to be multiplied； if he tills his fields to augment their productive power； or defends them by inclosures from wild beasts； if he plants them with trees； the fruit of which he does not look for till many years have elapsed； he is then creating the value； not only of annual produce raised by his labour from the ground； but also of the ground itself； which he had tamed； as he tamed the wild beasts； and rendered fit to second his exertions。 In that case he is rich； and the more so the longer he can suspend his labours without suffering new wants。 Our Solitary； being now liberated from the most pressing of all demands； that of hunger； may devote his exertions to provide lodging and clothes； or to improve those already provided。 He will build himself a hut； and fit it out with such furniture as his unaided labour may suffice to construct； he will change the skin and fleeces of his sheep into shoes or coats； and the more convenient his dwelling shall be rendered； the better his storehouse shall be filled with provision for his future food and clothing； the more rich may he call himself。 The history of this man is the history of the human race： labour alone has created all kinds of wealth。 However great the beneficence of nature； she gives nothing gratuitously to man； though； when addressed by him； she is ready to lend her assistance in multiplying his powers to an indefinite extent。 The history of wealth is； in all cases； comprised within the limits now specified … the labour which creates； the economy which accumulates； the consumption which destroys。 An article which has not been wrought； or has not mediately or immediately received its value from labour； is not wealth； however useful； however necessary； it may be for life。 An article； which is not useful to man； which does not satisfy any of his desires； and cannot mediately or immediately be employed in his service； is not more entitled to the name of wealth； whatever labour may have been bestowed on producing it。 And finally； an article which cannot be accumulated or kept for future consumption is not wealth； though created by labour and consumed by enjoyment。 Before possessing any medium of exchange； before discovering the precious metals which render it so easy to us； our Solitary would ere long learn to distinguish the different kinds of labour in their relation to wealth。 Labour producing no enjoyment is useless； labour； whose fruits are naturally incapable of being stored up for future consumption； is unproductive； whilst the only productive kinds of labour … the only kinds producing wealth … are such as leave behind them； in the estimation even of our Solitary； a pledge equal in value to the trouble they have cost。 Thus the man； misled by analogy； may have imagined that he could multiply his olive…trees by planting the olives； he may not have known but that the stones would germinate as in other such vegetables； till； after preparing the ground by a complete and fatiguing tillage； experience would teach him that his toil had been useless； for no olive…tree was produced by it。 On the other hand； he may have secured his dwelling from wolves and bears； and the labour would be useful but unproductive； for its fruits cannot accumulate。 If previously accustomed to civilized life； he may have passed many hours in playing on a flute； saved； we shall suppose； at his shipwreck； the labour would still be useful； and probably regarded as his own pleasure； but it would be as unproductive； and for a like reason； as before。 He may have bestowed on the care of his person and health much time； very usefully employed； this will also be quite unproductive of wealth。 The Solitary will clearly perceive what difference there is between productive labour and the labour of hours in which he amasses nothing for the future； and； without excluding himself from such occupations； he will call them a loss of time。 Whatever holds of the isolated man； with regard to creating and preserving wealth； is true also of society； … when labour； shared among numerous individuals； is recompensed by wages； while its fruits are distributed by exchange。 For the society； as well as for the Solitary； there may be a useless as well as an unproductive kind of labour； and； though both of them be paid； they still preserve their distinct character； since the first corresponds not to the desires or wants of the labourer's employer； and the second admits no accumulation of its fruits。 The wage paid to the workmen in either case must not mislead us； it puts the payer of it in the workman's place。 The part which we formerly supposed to be performed by a single individual； is now shared among two or more persons； but the result is not altered in the least。 The day…labourer who plants olives performs a task which is useless to his employer； though； if he receives his hire； it may be advantageous to himself。 The man who defends his master or society against bears or hostile enterprises； who takes charge of the health or the persons of others； who provides the enjoyment of music； or dramatic exhibition； or dancing； performs； just like the Solitary； a work which is useful because it is agreeable； which is lucrative to him because he receives a hire for his labour； whilst he abandons the enjoyment of it to his employers； but which is unproductive notwithstanding； because it cannot be the object of saving and accumulation。 He who paid the wage； no longer has either the wage itself in his possession； or the thing for which he gave it。 Thus labour and economy … the true sources of wealth … exist for the Solitary as well as for the social man； and produce the same kind of advantage to both。 The formation of society； however； and with it the introduction of commerce and exchange； were necessary both to augment the productive power of labour； by dividing it； and to afford a more precise aim to economy； by multiplying
