political economy-第31节
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at last； when the whole civilized world is but one market； and when new customers cannot be found in new nations。 The demand of the universal market is then a precise quantity； which the different industrious nations dispute with each other； if one furnish more； another must furnish less。 The total sale can only be increased by the progress of general opulence； or because conveniences； formerly confined to the rich； are brought within the reach of the poor。 The invention of the stocking frame； by means of which one man does as much work as a hundred did before； was a benefit for humanity； only because； at the same time； the progress of civilization； of population； and of wealth； increased the number of consumers。 New counties adopted the customs of Europe； and this article of dress； formerly reserved for the rich； has now descended to the poorest classes。 But if； at the present day； some new discovery should enable us； by a single stocking…frame； to do the work which ten years ago was done by a hundred； this discovery would be a national misfortune； for the number of consumers can scarcely increase； and it would then be the number of producers which would be diminished。 This example may show us the general rule： Whenever a discovery； economizing labour； brings within the reach of a poorer class what was previously confined to the rich； it extends the market； and whilst benefiting undertakers； and poor consumers； it does no harm to workmen。 But when the discovery cannot increase the number of consumers； though it serves them at a cheaper rate； either because they are already all furnished； or because the thing produced can never be useful to them； however low it may fall； … the discovery becomes a human calamity； because it is advantageous but to a certain manufacturer； and that only at the expense of his brethren； or it benefits a single nation； and that only at the expense of others。 This national benefit； if purchased at the expense of wretchedness and famine to foreign artisans； would not in itself be much worth coveting； it is； besides； very far from being certain。 From the progress of communication between different states； from the skill of manufacturers； a discovery in one country is imitated in every other before the former has gained any great profit from it。 It will doubtless be said； that whoever introduces a saving in any article of his consumption； preserving still the same revenue； will consume what he saves from the fall of price in such and such an article； by a new expenditure； for which he will put in requisition a new labour。 But there never will be any proportion between this new demand and the labour suspended on account of it。 On one hand； consumers make use of goods a little finer； a little prettier； at the same price。 The clothes with which the poor workman is dressed； are a little superior in quality； are really worth a little more than those which covered his father； at the expense of the same part of his wages。 But himself does not perceive this advantage。 Decency； which according to this station； he is obliged to consult； leaves him no choice； he must dress like his equals； without finding more enjoyment； he makes no saving in this article； he cannot apply it to any other expense。 On the other hand； the price of goods is not always established in direct proportion to the labour they require； but in a very complicated proportion subsisting between this annual labour； the circulating capital； and a primary； unrenewed labour； consumed in building the manufactory； constructing the machinery with expensive and often foreign materials。 Hence； even when a hundred workmen are dismissed； that the work may be done with one by means of machinery；the goods are not reduced to the hundredth part of their price。 The stocking…frame economizes work nearly in this proportion； yet it scarcely produces stockings ten per cent。 cheaper than those made with the needle。 Notwithstanding the invention of large mills for spinning wool； silk； cotton； women continue to be employed in spinning with the wheel； or even with the distaff； a certain proof that the saving does not exceed ten per cent。 The same observation may be extended to all improved manufactures： they have never diminished the price of their produce； except in arithmetical progression； while they have suspended workmanship in geometrical progression。 Let us compare this saving in workmanship with the saving in price； according to the most simple calculation on the commonest manufacture。 A hundred thousand women； who knit with the needle each a hundred pair of stockings annually； produce ten million pairs； which； at 5s。 a…piece； would sell at 2；500；000 l。： the raw material is worth a fifth of this。 There remains 2；000；000 to distribute among 100；000 workmen； or 20 l。 a…head。 The same work is done at present on the frame by 1000 workmen； and comes in ten per cent。 cheaper； at 4s。 6d。 a pair； or； 2；250；000 l。 In all the nation therefore saves 250；000 l。 If employed solely in workmanship； this sum would be sufficient to maintain 12；500 of the workers who have been dismissed。 But this is not what happens； the consumer； accustomed to buy stockings at 5s。 a pair； pays still the same price； but； by reason of the progress of the art； he merely wears them a little finer。 This progress in his luxury gives subsistence to a tenth more stocking manufactures； that is to a hundred more； to these add still farther a hundred workmen employed in repairing the machines； or constructing new ones； and you have in all 1200 workmen living on the sum which supported 100；000。 The same calculation is applicable to all improved manufactures； for the manufacturer； in adopting a new machine； and dismissing his workmen； never troubles himself with inquiring whether he shall make a profit equal to the diminution of workmanship； but merely whether he shall be enabled to sell a little cheaper than his rivals。 All the workmen of England would be turned to the street； if the manufacturers could employ steam engines in their place； with a saving of five per cent。 Besides； the improvement of machinery； and the economy of human labour； contribute immediately to diminish the number of national consumers； for all the ruined workmen were consumers。 In the country。 the introduction of the large farming system has banished from Great Britain the class of peasant farmers； who laboured themselves； and yet enjoyed an honest plenty。 The population has been considerably diminished； but its consumption is reduced still farther than its number。 The hinds perform all sorts of field labour； are limited to the scantiest necessaries； and give not nearly so much encouragement to the industry of towns as the rich peasants gave before。 A similar change has taken place in the population of towns。 Discoveries in the mechanical arts have always the remote result of concentrating industry within the hands of a smaller number of richer merchants。 They enable men to perform with an expensive machine； that is to say； with great capital； what was formerly performed with a great labour。 They discover the economy which exists in management on a great scale； the division of operation； the employment common to a great number of men at once； of light； fuel； and all the powers of nature。 Thus small merchants； small manufacturers disappear； and our great undertaker supplies the place of hundreds； who； all together； perhaps； were not as rich as he。 All together were； however； better consumers than he。 His expensive luxury gives far less encouragement to industry than the honest plenty of a hundred households； of which his household supplies the place。 As even new demands made manufactures prosper； the number of labourers； in spite of the augmented powers of labour； increases likewise； and such as were dismissed from the country found still an establishment in manufacturing towns； the population of which continued to increase。 But now when at last the market of the universe has been found sufficiently provided for； and new reductions of workmen have occurred； when hinds have been dismissed from the fields； spinners from the manufactories of cotton； weavers from those of cloth； when each day a new machine supplies the place of several families； whilst no new demand offers them an occupation or a livelihood； distress has reached its height； and one might begin to regret the progress of this civilization； which； by collecting a greater number of individuals in the same space of ground； has but multiplied their wretchedness； whilst in deserts it could at least but reach a small number of victims。 One might also regret that governments have studied too late； and neglected too constantly the precepts of a science； which； teaching the origin of national prosperity； points out beforehand its danger； and the causes of its destruction。
The End
