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第31节

political economy-第31节

小说: political economy 字数: 每页4000字

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at last; when the whole civilized world is but one market; and when new customers cannot be found in new nations。 The demand of the universal market is then a precise quantity; which the different industrious nations dispute with each other; if one furnish more; another must furnish less。 The total sale can only be increased by the progress of general opulence; or because conveniences; formerly confined to the rich; are brought within the reach of the poor。     The invention of the stocking frame; by means of which one man does as much work as a hundred did before; was a benefit for humanity; only because; at the same time; the progress of civilization; of population; and of wealth; increased the number of consumers。 New counties adopted the customs of Europe; and this article of dress; formerly reserved for the rich; has now descended to the poorest classes。 But if; at the present day; some new discovery should enable us; by a single stocking…frame; to do the work which ten years ago was done by a hundred; this discovery would be a national misfortune; for the number of consumers can scarcely increase; and it would then be the number of producers which would be diminished。     This example may show us the general rule: Whenever a discovery; economizing labour; brings within the reach of a poorer class what was previously confined to the rich; it extends the market; and whilst benefiting undertakers; and poor consumers; it does no harm to workmen。 But when the discovery cannot increase the number of consumers; though it serves them at a cheaper rate; either because they are already all furnished; or because the thing produced can never be useful to them; however low it may fall; … the discovery becomes a human calamity; because it is advantageous but to a certain manufacturer; and that only at the expense of his brethren; or it benefits a single nation; and that only at the expense of others。 This national benefit; if purchased at the expense of wretchedness and famine to foreign artisans; would not in itself be much worth coveting; it is; besides; very far from being certain。 From the progress of communication between different states; from the skill of manufacturers; a discovery in one country is imitated in every other before the former has gained any great profit from it。     It will doubtless be said; that whoever introduces a saving in any article of his consumption; preserving still the same revenue; will consume what he saves from the fall of price in such and such an article; by a new expenditure; for which he will put in requisition a new labour。 But there never will be any proportion between this new demand and the labour suspended on account of it。     On one hand; consumers make use of goods a little finer; a little prettier; at the same price。 The clothes with which the poor workman is dressed; are a little superior in quality; are really worth a little more than those which covered his father; at the expense of the same part of his wages。 But himself does not perceive this advantage。 Decency; which according to this station; he is obliged to consult; leaves him no choice; he must dress like his equals; without finding more enjoyment; he makes no saving in this article; he cannot apply it to any other expense。     On the other hand; the price of goods is not always established in direct proportion to the labour they require; but in a very complicated proportion subsisting between this annual labour; the circulating capital; and a primary; unrenewed labour; consumed in building the manufactory; constructing the machinery with expensive and often foreign materials。 Hence; even when a hundred workmen are dismissed; that the work may be done with one by means of machinery;the goods are not reduced to the hundredth part of their price。 The stocking…frame economizes work nearly in this proportion; yet it scarcely produces stockings ten per cent。 cheaper than those made with the needle。 Notwithstanding the invention of large mills for spinning wool; silk; cotton; women continue to be employed in spinning with the wheel; or even with the distaff; a certain proof that the saving does not exceed ten per cent。 The same observation may be extended to all improved manufactures: they have never diminished the price of their produce; except in arithmetical progression; while they have suspended workmanship in geometrical progression。     Let us compare this saving in workmanship with the saving in price; according to the most simple calculation on the commonest manufacture。 A hundred thousand women; who knit with the needle each a hundred pair of stockings annually; produce ten million pairs; which; at 5s。 a…piece; would sell at 2;500;000 l。: the raw material is worth a fifth of this。 There remains 2;000;000 to distribute among 100;000 workmen; or 20 l。 a…head。     The same work is done at present on the frame by 1000 workmen; and comes in ten per cent。 cheaper; at 4s。 6d。 a pair; or; 2;250;000 l。 In all the nation therefore saves 250;000 l。 If employed solely in workmanship; this sum would be sufficient to maintain 12;500 of the workers who have been dismissed。 But this is not what happens; the consumer; accustomed to buy stockings at 5s。 a pair; pays still the same price; but; by reason of the progress of the art; he merely wears them a little finer。 This progress in his luxury gives subsistence to a tenth more stocking manufactures; that is to a hundred more; to these add still farther a hundred workmen employed in repairing the machines; or constructing new ones; and you have in all 1200 workmen living on the sum which supported 100;000。     The same calculation is applicable to all improved manufactures; for the manufacturer; in adopting a new machine; and dismissing his workmen; never troubles himself with inquiring whether he shall make a profit equal to the diminution of workmanship; but merely whether he shall be enabled to sell a little cheaper than his rivals。 All the workmen of England would be turned to the street; if the manufacturers could employ steam engines in their place; with a saving of five per cent。     Besides; the improvement of machinery; and the economy of human labour; contribute immediately to diminish the number of national consumers; for all the ruined workmen were consumers。 In the country。 the introduction of the large farming system has banished from Great Britain the class of peasant farmers; who laboured themselves; and yet enjoyed an honest plenty。 The population has been considerably diminished; but its consumption is reduced still farther than its number。 The hinds perform all sorts of field labour; are limited to the scantiest necessaries; and give not nearly so much encouragement to the industry of towns as the rich peasants gave before。     A similar change has taken place in the population of towns。 Discoveries in the mechanical arts have always the remote result of concentrating industry within the hands of a smaller number of richer merchants。 They enable men to perform with an expensive machine; that is to say; with great capital; what was formerly performed with a great labour。 They discover the economy which exists in management on a great scale; the division of operation; the employment common to a great number of men at once; of light; fuel; and all the powers of nature。 Thus small merchants; small manufacturers disappear; and our great undertaker supplies the place of hundreds; who; all together; perhaps; were not as rich as he。 All together were; however; better consumers than he。 His expensive luxury gives far less encouragement to industry than the honest plenty of a hundred households; of which his household supplies the place。     As even new demands made manufactures prosper; the number of labourers; in spite of the augmented powers of labour; increases likewise; and such as were dismissed from the country found still an establishment in manufacturing towns; the population of which continued to increase。 But now when at last the market of the universe has been found sufficiently provided for; and new reductions of workmen have occurred; when hinds have been dismissed from the fields; spinners from the manufactories of cotton; weavers from those of cloth; when each day a new machine supplies the place of several families; whilst no new demand offers them an occupation or a livelihood; distress has reached its height; and one might begin to regret the progress of this civilization; which; by collecting a greater number of individuals in the same space of ground; has but multiplied their wretchedness; whilst in deserts it could at least but reach a small number of victims。 One might also regret that governments have studied too late; and neglected too constantly the precepts of a science; which; teaching the origin of national prosperity; points out beforehand its danger; and the causes of its destruction。



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