political economy-第30节
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n any other on chances of every kind for its subsistence； is exactly the class which calculates those chances least in the formation of a family。 They are the people who marry soonest； produce most children； and consequently lose most： but they do not lose their children； till after being themselves exposed to a competition which deprives them successively of all the sweets of life。 At the time when all towns were distributed into bodies of tradesmen； when a calling could not be exercised till the applicant had been united to a corporation； a workman never married till after he had been passed master。 A reception into the trade gave him the certainty of being able to maintain his family； an excessive competition did not expose the great mass of the population to the danger of dying from hunger。 Thus； all the institutions created in the republics of the middle ages； and reproduced in Queen Elizabeth's statute of apprenticeship； though keenly attacked by Adam Smith； for establishing a monopoly contrary to the consumer's interest； may be defended； not in regard to the increase of riches； but as forming a necessary obstacle to the immoderate increase of population。 Yet because the system we follow has made us experience a calamity； we ought not to imagine that no escape is to be found； except by rushing into the opposite extreme。 It is not by the suppression of corporations alone； that we have disproportionately increased the manufacturing population。 It is much more by the inordinate encouragement which all governments； at the same time； have given to production without attending to consumption。 We have already pointed out the results of this imprudent struggle； in regard to the increase of wealth。 They have been still more disastrous in producing and supporting with deceitful hopes a population； which has afterwards been abandoned to all the horrors of want。 A state ought； doubtless； to receive with gratitude whatever new industry the wants of consumers may develop but it also ought to allow the industry which is quitting it to depart； without any effort to the contrary。 When the profits of a manufacture diminish； new workmen do not engage in it； former workmen withdraw； and after some years of suffering； too long and too cruel； by any mode of treatment； the level is again established。 But if the favours of government keep up the staggering manufacture； if； trying to save it； government offers bounties for the discovery of any machine which shall spare manual labour； it will prolong suffering； and save the manufacturer only at the expense of those whom that manufacturer should support。 The guardian population presents the same species of suffering in another rank of society。 War multiplies the commissions of officers in the army and navy； the complicacy of administration multiplies the places of judges and civil agents of all kinds。 Religious zeal multiplies the places for pastors。 All of them live on pensions with a certain degree of opulence； none of them knows； or is able to insure the fund which affords him subsistence。 They reckon on ushering their children into the same career with themselves； they bring them up； multiply their families in proportion to their actual opulence； and blindly repose on the future。 Their pension； however； finishes with their life； and at death they leave their children in a state of indigence； the suffering of which is farther aggravated by the possession of a liberal education。 The laws which obstruct the marriage of officers； judges； clergymen； and generally of all such as live on pensions； how hard soever those law may appear at their first establishment； are justifiable； because they save from poverty the class to which its torments would be most piercing。 But an inordinate increase of population is not the only cause of this national suffering。 The demand for labour may decrease； and the population continue stationary。 Consumption may be arrested； revenues dissipated； capital destroyed； and the number of hands formerly occupied may no longer be able to find a sufficient employment。 The population immediately follow the revolution of the capitals destined to support it。 As day…labourers are more eager to receive even the smallest wage； than merchants to employ their money； the former are laid under conditions more and more hard； as the demand on the capital diminishes； and they conclude by contenting themselves with so miserable a remuneration； as is scarcely sufficient to maintain them alive。 No enjoyment is any longer attached to the existence of this unhappy class； hunger and suffering stifle in them all the moral affections。 When every hour is a struggle for life； all passions are concentrated in selfishness； each forgets the pain of others in what himself suffers； the sentiments of nature are blunted； a constant； obstinate； uniform labour； debases all the faculties。 One blushes for the human species； to see how low on the scale of degradation it can descend； how much beneath the condition of animals it can voluntarily submit to maintain life； and； notwithstanding all the benefits of social order； notwithstanding the advantages which man has gained from the arts； one is sometimes tempted to execrate the division of labour； and the invention of manufactures on beholding to what extremes of wretchedness they have reduced beings created equal with ourselves。 The misery of the savage hunter； who dies so frequently of hunger； is not equal to that of millions of families； whom a manufacturer sometimes dismisses； because at least there remains to the former； all the energy； and all the intelligence； which he has put to proof during all his life。 When he dies for want of finding game； he yields to a necessity which nature herself presents； and to which he knew； from the beginning； he must submit； as to sickness； or to old age。 But the artisan； dismissed from his workshop； with his wife and children； has beforehand lost the strength of his soul and his body； he is still surrounded with riches； he still sees beside him； at every step； the food which he requires； and if society refuses him the labour by which he offers； till his last moment； to purchase bread； it is men； not nature； that he blames。 Even when persons do not actually die of hunger； even when the aids of charity are eagerly administered to all indigent families； discouragement and suffering produce their cruel effects on the poor； the diseases of the soul are communicated to the body； epidemics are multiplied； children die in a few months after their birth； and the suppression of labour causes more cruel ravages than the cruellest war： besides； fatal habits； either of mendicity or idleness； take root in the population； another course is given to trade； another direction to fashion； and even after death has cleared the ranks of workmen； those who remain are no longer in a condition to support the competition of foreigners。 The causes of diminution in the demand for labour； often belong to polity； properly so called； rather than to political economy。 There is； perhaps； none more efficacious than the loss or diminution of liberty； When a nation begins to alienate this precious possession； each citizen thinks himself less secure of his fortune； of the fruits of his labour； each abates something of the activity of his mind； and his spirit of industry。 The virtues which accompany labour； … sobriety； constancy； economy … give place to the vices of idleness； to intemperance； dissipation； and forgetfulness of the future。 Trade； industry； activity； are regarded with contempt； in a state where the people are nothing； whilst all distinction； all honours； are reserved for noble indolence。 Favour； intrigue； flattery； and all the arts of courtiers； which debase the soul； are roads to fortune； much more sure and rapid than strength of character； bold and enterprising activity； or a spirit of speculation。 Intriguers are multiplied daily； they regard with contempt those who follow the only honourable path to fortune； that in which none makes progress except by his merit or his labour。 One cause of depopulation is； however； presented； which lies within the narrowest range of political economy。 The progress of the arts； the progress of industry； and hence even that of wealth and prosperity； discover economical methods of producing all the fruits of labour； by employing a smaller number of workmen。 Animals are substituted for men in almost all the details of agriculture； and machines are substituted for men in all the operations of manufactures。 So long as a nation finds within its reach a market sufficiently extensive to secure for all its productions a prompt and advantageous circulation； each of those discoveries is an advantage； because； instead of diminishing the number of workmen； it augments the mass of labour and its produce。 A nation which happens to originate discoveries； succeeds； for a long time； in extending its market in proportion to the number of hands set free by every new invention。 It immediately employs them in augmenting the produce； which the discovery promises to furnish at a cheaper rate。 But a period arrives at last； when the whole civilized world is but one market； and when new customers cannot be found in
