political economy-第3节
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ion has any； or by foreign trade； if it has none。 All the exchanges carried on within a country； all the purchases and sales which take place among Englishmen； for instance； do not increase the specie contained within the shores of England by a single penny。 Hence it is necessary to And means of importing money from other countries； and trade alone can do this by selling much to foreigners and buying little from them。 For in the same way as each merchant in settling with his correspondent； sees at the year's end whether he has sold more than he has bought； and Ands himself accordingly creditor or debtor by a balance account which must be paid in money； so likewise a nation； by summing up all its purchases and all its sales with each nation； or with all together； would find itself every year creditor or debtor by a commercial balance which must be paid in money。 If the country pay this balance； it will constantly grow poorer； if it receive the balance； it will constantly grow richer。 For a century； the mercantile system was universally adopted by cabinets； universally favoured by traders and chambers of commerce； universally expounded by writers； as if it had been proved by the most unexceptionable demonstration； no one deeming it worth while to establish it by new proofs； when； after the middle of the eighteenth century； Quesnay opposed to it his Tableau Economique； afterwards expounded by Mirabeau and the Abbe de Riviere； enlarged by Dupont de Nemours； and adopted by a numerous sect which arose in France； under the name of Economists。 In Italy too this sect gained some distinguished partisans。 Its followers have written more about the science than those of any other sect； yet they have admitted Quesnay's principles with such blind confidence； and maintained them with such implicit fidelity； that one is at a loss to discover any difference of principle； or any progress of ideas in their several productions。 Thus Quesnay founded a second system in political economy； still named the territorial system； or more precisely the system of the economists。 He begins by asserting that gold and silver； the signs of wealth； the means of exchange； the price of all commodities； do not themselves constitute the wealth of states； and that no judgment can be formed concerning the prosperity of a nation； from the abundance of its precious metals。 He next proceeds to survey the different classes of men； all of whom； occupied in gaining money； and causing wealth to circulate； even when acquiring it for themselves； are not； according to him； occupied with any thing besides exchange。 He endeavours to distinguish the classes possessed of a creative power； it is amongst them that wealth must originate； all the transactions of commerce appearing to be nothing else but the transmission of that wealth from hand to hand。 The merchant who carries the productions of both hemispheres from one continent to the other； and on returning to the ports of his own country； obtains； at the sale of his cargo； a sum double of that with which he began his voyage； does not； after all； appear； in the eyes of Quesnay； to have performed any thing but an exchange。 If； in the colonies； he has sold the manufactures of Europe at a higher price than they cost him； the reason is； they were in fact worth more。 Together with their prime cost； he must also be reimbursed for the value of his time； his cares； his subsistence； and that of his sailors and agents during the voyage。 He has a like reimbursement to claim on the cotton or sugar he brings back to Europe。 If； at the end of his voyage； any profit remains； it is the fruit of his economy and good management。 The wages allowed him by consumers； for the trouble he has undergone； are greater than the sum he had expended。 It is the nature of wages； however； to be entirely expended by him who earns them； and had this merchant done so； he would have added nothing to the national wealth； by the labour of his whole life； because the produce which he brings back does nothing more than exactly replace the valuE of the produce given for it； added to his own wages； and the wages of all that were engaged with him in the business。 Agreeably to this reasoning； the French philosopher gave to transport trade the name of economical trade； which it still retains。 This species of commerce； he asserts； is not destined to provide for the wants of the nation that engages in it； but merely to serve the convenience of two foreign nations。 The carrying nation acquires from it no other profit than wages； and cannot grow rich except by the saving which economy enables it to make on them。 Quesnay； next adverting to manufactures； considers them an exchange； just the same as commerce； but instead of having in view two present values； their primitive contract is； in his opinion； an exchange of the present against the future。 The merchandise produced by the labour of the artisan is but the equivalent of his accumulated wages。 During his labour； he had consumed the fruits of the earth； and the work produced by him is nothing but their value。 The economist next directs his attention to agriculture。 The labourer appears to him to be in the same condition as the merchant and the artisan。 Like the latter； he makes with the earth an exchange of the present against the future。 The crops produced by him represent the accumulated value of his labour； they pay his hire； to which he has the same right as the artisan to his wages； or the merchant to his profit。 But when this hire has been deducted； there remains a net revenue； which was not be found in manufactures and commerce； it is what the labourer pays the proprietor for the use of his land。 This revenue； Quesnay thinks； is of a nature quite different from any other。 It is not wages； it is not the result of an exchange； it is the price of the earth's spontaneous labour； the fruit of nature's beneficence； and since it does not represent pre…existent wealth； it alone must be the source of every kind of wealth。 Tracing the value of all other commodities； under all its transformations； Quesnay still discovers its first origin in the fruits of the earth。 The labours of the husbandman； of the artisan； of the merchant； consume those fruits in the shape of wages and produce them under new forms。 The proprietor alone receives them at their source from the hands of nature herself； and by means of them is enabled to pay the wages of all his countrymen； who labour only for him。 This ingenious system totally supplanted that of the merchants。 The economists denied the existence of that commercial balance to which their antagonists attached so much importance； they asserted the impossibility of that accumulation of gold and silver which the others expected from it； throughout the nation； they could see only proprietors of land； the sole dispensers of the national fortune； productive workmen； or labourers producing the revenue of the former。 and a hired class； in which they ranked merchants also denying to them； as to the artisans； the faculty of producing any thing。 The plans； which these two sects recommended to governments； differed not less than their principles。 While the mercantilists wished authority to interfere in every thing； the economists incessantly repeated laissez faire et laissez passer （let every man do as he pleases； and every thing take its course；） for as the public interest consists in the union of all individual interests； individual interest will guide each man more surely to the public interest than any government can do。 An excessive ferment was excited in France by the system of the economists。 The government of that nation allowed the people to talk about public affairs； but not to understand them。 The discussion； of Quesnay's theory was sufficiently unshackled； but none of the facts or documents in the hands of the administration； were presented to the public eye。 In the system of the French economists； it is easy to discern the effects produced by this mixture of ingenious theory and involuntary ignorance。 It seduced the people； because they were now for the first time occupied with their own public affairs。 But； during these discussions； a free nation； possessed of the right to examine its own public affairs； was producing a system not less ingenious； and much better supported by fact and observation； a system which； after a short struggle； at length cast its predecessors into the shade； for truth always triumphs in the end； over dreams； however brilliant。 Adam Smith； author of this third system； which represents labour as the sole origin of wealth； and economy as the sole means of accumulating it； has； in one sense； carried the science of political economy to perfection； at a single step。 Experience； no doubt； has disclosed new truths to us； the experience of late years； in particular； has forced us to make sad discoveries： but in completing the system of Smith； that experience has also confirmed it。 Of the various succeeding authors； no one has sought any other theory。 Some have applied what he advanced to the administration of different counties； others have confirmed it by new experiments and new observations； some have expanded it by developments； which flow from the prin
