political economy-第29节
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t a time when the rapid progress of population was every where desirable； their principles have not yet changed； now when the unlimited increase of families has given birth only to beings； of necessity condemned to physical suffering or moral degradation。 A Chinese knows no greater misfortune； no deeper humiliation； than not to leave sons behind him to perform the funeral honours at his death。 In almost all other creeds the indefinite increase of families has ever been represented as a blessing of heaven。 On the other hand； whilst religion repressed irregularity of morals； it attached all morality of conduct to marriage； and washed away； by the nuptial benediction alone； whatever； was reprehensible in the imprudence of him who inconsiderately contracted the bonds of paternity。 Yet； how important soever purity of morals may be； the duties of a father towards those whom he brings into existence are of a still higher order。 Children born but for wretchedness； are also born but for vice。 The happiness and the virtue of innocent and defenceless beings are thus sacrificed beforehand； to satisfy the passions of a day。 The ardour of casuists in preaching up marriage to correct a fault； the imprudence with which they recommend husbands to shut their eyes upon the future； to entrust the fate of their children to providence； the ignorance of social order； which has induced them to erase chastity from the number of virtues proper in marriage； are causes which have been incessantly active in destroying the proportion which naturally would have established itself between the population and its means of existing。 The Catholic faith has sometimes gained credit for its religious vows； which by forbidding marriage to a certain number of individuals； seemed to offer some opposition to an unlimited multiplication of the human species。 But those who consider it thus； certainly do not understand another very important part of the legislation of casuists； with regard to all that they have named the duties of husbands。 Considering marriage as solely destined for multiplication； they have made a sin of the very virtues which they enforce on single persons。 This morality is enforced by every confessor on every father and mother of a family。 The effects of it are powerfully felt in the social organization of Catholic countries。 They are met with even in reformed churches。 When fatal prejudices are not honoured； when a system of morality contrary to our true duties towards others； and above all towards those indebted to us for life； is not taught in the name of the most sacred authority； no wise man will marry till he is in a condition that affords him sure means of living； no father of a family will have more children than he can conveniently maintain。 The latter expects that his children will be satisfied with the lot in which he has lived； hence he will wish the rising generation exactly to represent that which is departing； he will wish that a son and a daughter arrived at the age of marriage； should fill the place of his father and his mother； that his children's children should fill his place and his wife's； in their turn； his daughter will find in another house exactly the lot which he will give to the daughter of another house in his own； and the income which satisfied the fathers will satisfy the children。 When once this family is formed； justice and humanity require that they submit to the same constraints which single people undergo。 On considering how small is the number of natural children in every country； it ought to be admitted that this constraint is sufficiently effectual。 In a country where population cannot increase； where new places do not exist for new establishments； the father who has eight children should reckon either that six of his children will die young； or that three contemporary males and their contemporary females； or in the following generation three of his sons and three of his daughters will not marry on his account。 There is no less injustice in the second calculation than cruelty in the first。 If marriage is sacred； if it is one great means of attaching men to virtue； and recompensing the chagrins of declining years； by the growing hopes of allowing an honourable old age to succeed an active youth； it is not because this institution renders lawful the pleasures of sense； but because it imposes new duties on the father of a family； and returns him the sweetest recompense in the ties of husband and father。 Religious morality ought therefore to teach men； that marriage is made for all citizens equally； that it is the object towards which they should all direct their efforts； but that this object has not been attained except so far as they are able to fulfil their duties towards the beings whom they call into existence： and after obtaining the happiness of being fathers； after renewing their families； and giving this stay and hope to their declining years； they are no less obliged to live chastely with their wives； than single persons with such as do not belong to them。 Self…interest powerfully warns men against this indefinite multiplication of their families； to which they have been invited by so fatal a religious error； and no one ought to be disquieted if this order is observed remissly。 In general at least three births are required to give two such individuals as arrive at the age of marriage； and the niches of population are not so exactly formed； that they cannot by turns admit a little more and a little less。 Only government ought to awaken the prudence of citizens deficient in it； and never to deceive them by hopes of an independent lot； when this illusory establishment shall leave them exposed to misery； suffering； and death。 When peasants are proprietors； the agricultural population stops of itself； when it has brought about a division of the land； such that each family is invited to labour； and may live in comfortable circumstances。 This is the case in almost all the Swiss cantons； which follow nothing but agriculture。 When two or more sons are found in one family； the younger do not marry till they can find wives who bring them some property。 Till then； they work day…labour and live by means of it。 But among peasant…cultivators； the trade of day…labour does not afford a rank； and the workman who has nothing but his limbs； can rarely find a father imprudent enough to give him his daughter。 When the land； instead of being cultivated by its proprietors； is cultivated by farmers； metayers； day…labourers； the condition of the latter classes becomes more precarious； and their multiplication is not so necessarily adjusted to the demand for their labour。 They are far worse informed than the peasant…proprietor； and yet they are called to perform a much more complicated calculation。 Living under the risk of being dismissed at a day' s notice from the land they till； it is less a question with them what this land will give； than what is their chance of being employed elsewhere。 They calculate probabilities in place of certainties； and commit themselves to fortune with regard to what they cannot investigate。 They depend on being happy； they marry much younger； they bring into the world many more children； precisely because they know less distinctly how those children are to be established。 Thus metayers； day…labourers。 all peasants depending on a master； being more imperfectly able to judge of their situation by themselves； ought to be guided and protected by government。 Landed proprietors wield all the force of monopoly against them； whilst day…labourers； acting in competition with each other； are finally reduced to work for the most wretched subsistence。 Those measures are wise； therefore； which have been adopted by legislators to fix the minimum share that should fall to each peasant。 It would； in general； be a beneficent law which should permit no division of a metairie below a certain limit； no reduction below a half on the metayer's part。 It is a beneficent law which has fixed the peasant's lot in Austria； a law which should invariably fix the Russian peasant's capitation to his landlord； would be equivalent to an emancipation from serfage； and free from all the convulsions of such a step。 The Russian nation could not； perhaps； receive a greater benefit from its government。 The statute of Elizabeth； in fine； was wise in prohibiting a cottage from being built without at least four acres of land being allotted to it。 Had this law been executed in England and Ireland； no marriage could have happened among day…labourers without a cottage to shelter the family； no cottager would have been reduced to the last degree of penury。 The industrious population which inhabit towns have still fewer data than those of the country； for calculating the lot of the succeeding generation。 The workman knows only that he has lived by his labour； he naturally believes that his children will do so likewise。 How can he judge of the extent of the market； or the general demand for labour in his country； whilst the master who employs him is incessantly mistaken on these points？ Accordingly； this class； more dependent than any other on chances of every kind for its subsistence； is exactly the class which calculates thos
