political economy-第28节
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covered； there is a risk of simultaneously rejecting both the observations and the precepts。 Mr Malthus established as a principle that the population of every country is limited by the quantity of subsistence which that country can furnish。 This proposition is true only when applied to the whole terrestial globe； or to a country which has no possibility of trade； in all other cases； foreign trade modifies it； and； farther； which is more important； this proposition is but abstractly true； … true in a manner inapplicable to political economy。 Population has never reached the limit of subsistence； and probably it never will。 Long before the population can be arrested by the inability of the country to produce more food； it is arrested by the inability of the population to purchase that food； or to labour in producing it。 The whole population of a state； says Mr Malthus； may be doubled every twenty…five years； it would thus follow a geometrical progression： but the labour employed to meliorate a soil； already in culture； can add to its produce nothing but quantities continually decreasing。 Admitting that； during the first twenty…five years； the produce of land has been doubled； during the second we shall scarcely succeed in compelling it to produce a half more； then a third more； then a fourth。 Thus the progress of subsistence will not follow the geometrical； but the arithmetical progression； and； in the course of two centuries； whilst the population increases； as the numbers； 1。 2； 4； 8； 16； 32； 64； 128； subsistence will increase not faster than the numbers； 1； 2； 3； 4； 5； 6； 7； 8。 This reasoning； which serves as a basis to the system of Mr。 Malthus； and to which he incessantly appeals； through the whole course of his book； is completely sophistical。 It opposes the possible increase of the human population； considered abstractly； and without regarding circumstances； to the positive increase of animals and vegetables in a confined place； under circumstances more and more unfavourable。 They ought not thus to be compared。 Abstractly； the multiplication of food follows a geometrical progression； no less than the multiplication of men。 It follows it only in a much more rapid manner。 In a given space and time； this progression is not followed any more by the one species than the other。 Population is arrested first； and arrests subsistence in its turn； when the obstacle is removed； both begin again to increase； till they reach a new limit； equally common to both； and the history of the universe has never yet presented the example of a country in which the multiplication of food could not be more rapid than that of the co…existent population。 In a state absolutely savage； men live on the produce of hunting and fishing。 The fish and the game are multiplied like man； in a geometrical progression； but much more rapid than the one he follows。 Man； it is true； hinders their reproduction by destroying them； but； on the other hand； they arrest his； for it is not certainly among nations of hunters that the population is doubled every twenty…five years； and whenever this destruction is suspended； the reproduction of game will be much more rapid than that of men。 The progress of civilization substitutes the pastoral life for a life of hunting； and the natural produce of the ground； better managed； is sufficient for a much more numerous population of men and of animals。 The deserts； which scarcely support five hundred Cherokee hunters； would be sufficient for ten thousand Tartar shepherds； with all their flocks； the multiplication of the latter is always much more rapid than that of men； whilst the production of a man requires twenty…five years； that of an ox requires but five； of a sheep but two； of a hog but one。 The number of oxen may be doubled in six years； that of sheep in three； that of hogs may be rendered ten times as great in two years。 Whenever a shepherd gains possession of a country formerly abandoned to hunting； the multiplication of his flocks will greatly precede that of his family； when； afterwards； one of the two is arrested； the other will be so too。 But when civilization makes a new step； pastoral nations abandon their flocks for agriculture； and； instead of trusting to the natural productions of the vegetable kingdom； they produce and multiply them by their labours。 It is calculated that thirty families may live on the corn produced by a piece of ground； which would have supported only a single family by its produce in cattle。 At the time； therefore； when a nation passes from the pastoral to the agricultural state； it in some sense acquires a country thirty times as large as the one it formerly occupied。 If the whole of this country is not cultivated； if even in the most civilized kingdoms； there remains a vast extent nf fertile land still employed in unprofitable pasturage； it is an evident proof that other causes than want of subsistence prevent the development of population。 The multiplication of vegetables follows a geometrical progression much more rapid still than the multiplication of cattle。 In common tillage； corn increases five…fold in the course of a year； potatoes ten…fold in the same space of time。 The latter vegetable； to produce a given quantity of food； scarcely requires the tenth part of the ground which corn would occupy。 Yet even in the most populous countries； men are very far from having planted all their corn fields with potatoes； from having sown all their pasturages with corn； from having converted into pasturage all their woods； all their deserts abandoned to hunting。 Those things are a fund of reserve remaining to every nation； and； by means of them； if a new demand for labour should suddenly cause the population to increase as rapidly as the nature of man can permit； the multiplication of food would still precede it。 The demand for labour which the capital of a country can pay； and not the quantity of food which that country can produce； regulates the population。 In political economy； nothing is reckoned a demand but what is accompanied with a sufficient compensation for the thing demanded。 If no fault has been committed on the part of government； if no dangerous prejudice has been diffused among the people； very few men will think of marrying； and burdening their hands with the subsistence of individuals unable to procure it themselves； till they have first acquired an establishment。 But whenever a new demand for labour raises their wages； and thus increases their revenue； they hasten to satisfy one of the first laws of nature； and seek in marriage a new source of happiness。 If the rise of wages was but momentary； if； for example； the favours granted by government suddenly give a great development to a species of manufacture； which； after its commencement； cannot be maintained； the workmen； whose remuneration was double during some time； will all have married to profit by their opulence； and then； at the moment when their trade declines； families disproportionate to the actual demand of labour will be plunged into the most dreadful wretchedness。 It is those variations in the demand for labour； this sort of revolution so frequent in the lives of poor artisans； that gives to the state a superabundant population。 Already brought into the world； that population finds no longer any room to exist there； it is always ready to be satisfied with the lowest terms on which it may be permitted to live。 There is no condition so hard that men are not found ready to engage in it voluntarily。 In some trades； the workmen are obliged to live in mud； exposed to continual nausea； in others； the labour engenders painful and inevitable maladies； several stupify the senses； degrade the body and the soul； several employ none but children； and after introducing into life； abandon to a horrible indigence the being they have formed。 There are callings； in fine； which public opinion brands with infamy； there are some which deserve this condemnation。 Yet the ranks are always full； and a miserable wage； scarce sufficient for existence； induces men； to undergo so many evils。 The reason is； society does not leave them any choice； they are compelled to be contented with this cruel lot or not to live。 The duty of governments to succour so much wretchedness cannot be doubtful； for they are almost always the cause of this wretched population's being created； but； at the same time they ought not to forget that it is their part to save from indigence the miserable creatures already in existence； though at the same time discouraging them from perpetuating their race。 Assistance given to the poor has often done the contrary。 Religious instruction has almost always strongly contributed to destroy the equilibrium between the population； and the demand for labour which is to give it subsistence。 When questions of moral polity are introduced in a religious system； it almost constantly happens； that the cause of the precept is absolutely separated from the precept itself； and a rule； which should be modified by circumstances； becomes an invariable law。 Religions began with the origin of the human race； and therefore at a time when the rapid progress of population was every where desirable； their principles have not
