political economy-第15节
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r a moment by a fall in the price； is very soon shut up； and if the general consumption is not increased； the production is not so either。 Sale is extended also； and in a more lasting manner； when the cheapness of the thing produced brings it within the reach of a new class of consumers； a very sensible diminution of the price may often produce this effect。 Thus glass windows were at one time confined to palaces； they are found at the present time in the meanest huts。 Consumption is in that case truly increased； each nation gains doubly by it； manufacturers have extended their labour； the poor have acquired a new enjoyment。 The increase of population； and of national wealth； contributes to extend the market； in a manner still more advantageous。 Yet every conceivable increase of population and of wealth； does not； of necessity； extend the market； it is only such an increase as attends the increased comforts of the most numerous class。 When cultivation on the great scale has succeeded cultivation on the small； more capital is perhaps absorbed by land； and re…produced by it； more wealth than formerly may be diffused among the whole mass of agriculturists； but the consumption of one rich farmer's family； united to that of fifty families of miserable hinds； is not so valuable for the nation； as that of fifty families of peasants； no one of which was rich； but none deprived of an honest competence。 So also in towns； the consumption of a manufacturer worth a million； under whose orders are employed a thousand workmen； reduced to the bare necessaries of life； is not so advantageous for the nation； as that of a hundred manufacturers far less rich； who employ each but ten workmen far less poor。 It is very true； that ten thousand pounds of income； whether they belong to a single man； or to a hundred； are all equally destined for consumption； but this consumption is not of the same nature。 A man； however rich； cannot employ for his use an infinitely greater number of articles than a poor man； but he employs articles infinitely better； he requires work far better finished； materials far more precious； and brought from a far greater distance。 It is he who especially encourages the perfection of certain workmen； that finish a small number of objects with extreme skill； it is he who pays them an exorbitant wage。 It is he also that especially rewards such workmen as we have named unproductive； because they procure for him nothing but fugitive enjoyments； which can never by accumulation form part of the national wealth； and whilst the effect of increasing capital is generally to concentrate labour in very large manufactories； the effect of great opulence is almost entirely to exclude the produce of those large manufactories from the consumption of the opulent man。 The diffusion of wealth； therefore； still more than its accumulation； truly constitutes national prosperity； because it keeps up the kind of consumption most favourable for national re…production。 The manufacturer's market may； in the last place； be extended； by what forms the noblest wish of a statesman； the progress of civilization； comfort； security； and happiness； among barbarous nations。 Europe has arrived at such a point； that； in all its parts； there is to be found an industry； a quantity of fabrication； superior to its wants； but if false policy did not incessantly induce us to arrest the progress of civilization among our neighbours； if Egypt had been left in the hands of a people requiring the arts of Europe； if Turkey were extricated from the oppression under which it groans； if our victories over the inhabitants of Barbary had been profitably employed in giving back the coasts of Africa to social life； if Spain had not again been yielded to a despotism which destroys and ruins her population； if the independents of America were protected； so that they might be allowed to enjoy the advantages which nature offers them； if the Hindoos； subject to Europe； were amalgamated with Europeans； if Franks were encouraged to settle among them； in place of being repelled； … consumption would increase in these different counties； rapidly enough to employ all this super…abundant labour； which Europe at present knows not how to dispose of； and to terminate this distress in which the poor are plunged。 The more superior the buyer's price is to the seller's； the more profit does trade give to be shared among the trader； and all those whom he employs in the transport and distribution of his goods； the manufacturer； and all those whom he employs in the production of them。 Hence one of the great and constant objects of governments has been； to increase this difference； that their manufacturers might be enabled to produce cheap； and so find many buyers； and to sell dear to such as could not buy elsewhere； and so gain a large profit。 The progress of society generally enables nations to produce cheaper； the almost ever injudicious protection of government often gives them means of selling dearer。 The low price of workmanship is the first cause of manufacturing profit； but this low price is never a national advantage； except when it is produced by superiority of climate； greater fertility of soil； or abundance of provision。 On the contrary； when it arises from the difficulty of communication； which prevents cultivators from reaping all the profit of their wares； it can only be regarded as a private advantage； acquired at the expense of the national advantage。 When the low price of workmanship arises from the poverty of day…labourers； forced by competition to content themselves with what is necessary for life； though commerce may profit by the circumstance； it is nothing better than a national calamity。 Abundance of capital； and the consequence of this； a low price of interest； likewise doubly contribute to diminish the price of production。 With more capital； the manufacturer and merchant transact their purchases and sales at a more favourable moment； they are not pressed by either operation； or compelled to provide for the print by a sacrifice of future advantage。 Executing all kinds of labour more on the great scale； they save time； and all those incidental charges； which are the same for a great and for a small sum。 But as to the saving made by the merchant on the interest of money； it is made at the expense of a particular class； deriving their revenue from trade； it does not enrich the nation any more than the diminution of wages enriched it； it only gives to one what it takes from another。 The increasing division of labour forms； as we have seen； the chief cause of increase in its productive powers； each makes better what he is constantly engaged in making； and when； at length； his whole labour is reduced to the simplest operation； he comes to perform it with such ease and rapidity； that the eye cannot make us comprehend how the address of man should arrive at such precision and promptitude。 Often also this division leads to the discovery； that as the workman is now worth nothing more than a machine； a machine may in fact supply his place。 Several important inventions in mechanics applied to the arts； have thus sprung from the division of labour； but； by the influence of this division； man has lost in intelligence all that he has gained in the power of producing wealth。 It is by the variety of its operations that our soul is unfolded； it is to procure citizens that a nation wishes to have men； not to procure machines At for operations a little more complicated than those performed by fire or water。 The division of labour has conferred a value on operations so simple； that children； from the tenderest age； are capable of executing them； and children； before having developed any of their faculties； before having experienced any enjoyment of life； are accordingly condemned to put a wheel in motion； to turn a spindle； to empty a bobbin。 More lace； more pins； more threads； and cloth of cotton or silk； are the fruit of this great division of labour； but how dearly have we purchased them； if it is by this moral sacrifice of so many millions of human beings！ The employment of machinery in place of men； has contributed generally to lessen the price of production。 At the renovation of arts and civilization； there was so much work to be done； and so few hands to do it； oppression had so far reduced the poor class； there remained so much uncultivated land in the country； so many ill…supplied trades in towns； and sovereigns required so many soldiers for war； that it seemed workmanship could never be economized enough； since an artisan； sent away from one trade； would always find ten others ready to receive him。 Circumstances are not now the same； our labour is scarcely sufficient for the labourers。 We shall endeavour； in another place； to explain the cause of this fact； in the mean time； surely none will maintain that it can be advantageous to substitute a machine for a man； if this man cannot find work elsewhere； or that it is not better to have the population composed of citizens than of steam…engines； even though the cotton cloth of the first should be a little dearer than that of the second。 The application of science to art is not limited to the invention of machinery； its r
