political economy-第14节
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by the wants of him who produced it； but by the wants of all those with whom he might transact exchanges； … with whom he might carry on commerce； and hence we have named it commercial wealth。 The solitary man was used to labour for his own wants； and his consumption was the measure of his production； he fitted out a place to produce him provisions for a year； for two years perhaps； but afterwards he did not indefinitely augment it。 It was enough to renew the process； so as to maintain himself in the same condition； and； if he had time to spare； he laboured at acquiring some new enjoyment； at satisfying some other fancy。 Society has never done any thing by commerce； except sharing among all its members what the isolated man would have prepared solely for himself。 Each labours； in like manner； to provide for all； during a year； two years； or more； each labours； afterwards； to keep up this provision； according as consumption destroys a part of it； and since the division of labour and the improvement of arts allow more and more work to be done； each； perceiving that he has already provided for the reproduction of what has been consumed； studies to awaken new tastes and new fancies which he may satisfy。 But when a man laboured for himself alone； he never dreamt of those fancies； till he had provided for his wants； his time was his revenue； his time formed also his whole means of production。 There was no room to fear； that the one would not be exactly proportioned to the other； that he would ever work to satisfy an inclination that he did not feel； or which he valued less than a want。 But when trade was introduced； and each no longer laboured for himself； but for an unknown person； the different proportions subsisting between the desire and what could satisfy it； between the labour and the revenue； between production and consumption； were no longer equally certain； they were independent of each other； and every workman was obliged to regulate his conduct by guessing on a subject； concerning which the most skilful had nothing but conjectural information。 The isolated man's knowledge of his own means and his own wants； required to be replaced by a knowledge of the market； for which the social man was labouring； of its demands and its extent。 The number of consumers； their tastes； the extent of their consumption； and their income； regulate the market for which every producer labours。 Each of these four elements is variable； independently of the rest； and each of their variations accelerates or retards the sale。 The number of consumers may decrease； not only by sickness or war； but also by obstacles which policy may place in the way of their communication； or by the avarice of new sellers。 Their tastes may be changed by fashion： an extraordinary consumption of one kind of merchandize； brought about by some public calamity； may have reduced them to be frugal in all the rest； and finally； their income may diminish without a diminution of their number； and with the same wants； the same means of satisfying them may no longer exist。 Such revolutions in the market are difficult to know with precision； difficult to calculate； and their obscurity is greater for each individual producer； because he but imperfectly knows the number and means of his rivals； the merchants； who are to sell in competition with him。 But one single observation serves him； instead of all them： he compares his price with that of the buyer； and this comparison； according to the profit or loss which it offers him； is a warning to increase or diminish his production； for the following year。 The producer establishes his price according to what the merchandise has cost； including his profit； which ought to be proportional to what might be obtained in any other kind of industry。 The price must be sufficient to repay the workmen's wages； the rent of the land； or the interest on the fixed capitals employed in production； the raw materials wrought by him； with all the expenses of transport； and all the advances of money。 When all these reimbursements； calculated at the mean rate of the country； are themselves repaid by the last purchaser； the production may continue on the same footing。 If the profits rise above the mean rate； the producer will extend his enterprizes； he will employ new hands and fresh capital； and； striving to benefit by this extraordinary profit； he will soon reduce it to the common level。 If the buyer； on the other hand； pays a price too low for compensating all the producer's reimbursements； the latter will； of course； seek to reduce his production； but this change will not be so easy as the other。 The workmen employed by him； rather than abandon what gains their bread； consent to work at a lower price； for less even than the necessaries of life。 Fixed capitals； moreover； cannot be put to another use； he will content himself with a smaller profit； and continue to work with them till they produce next to nothing。 Lastly； the manufacturer himself must live by his industry； and never willingly abandons it： he is ever disposed to attribute the decline of his last year's trade to accidental causes； and the less he has gained； the less is he willing to retire from business。 Thus production continues almost always longer than demand； unless the manufacturer has； of his own accord； renounced his business to attempt a new one。 The buyer's price； an the other hand； is fixed by competition。 He does not inquire what the article costs； but what are the terms on which he may obtain another to serve in its stead； he addresses himself to various merchants； who offer him the same commodity； and bargains with him who will sell the cheapest； or else he considers which will suit him best； among several articles of a different nature； but capable of being substituted for each other。 As each is occupied solely with his own private interest； each tends to the same object： all the buyers； on one hand； all the sellers on the other； act as if in concert： the sums asked； and the sums offered； are brought to an equilibrium； and the mean price is established。 The seller's price should enable him to reproduce the article sold； with a profit； under the same condition； in the same place。 His market； therefore； extends to every country where the mean price established by commerce is no smaller than his。 His production is not limited by the consumption of neighbors or countrymen； it is regulated by the whole number of those who； whatever country they inhabit； find an advantage in purchasing his goods； or for whom his producing price is not superior to the buying price。 It is this which properly constitutes the extent of market。 As the division of labour incessantly augments its productive powers； and the increase of capitals daily obliges the merchant to seek new employment for industry； and try new manufactures； the producer feels no interest more pressing than that of extending his market。 If he cannot find new places of sale； it will neither suit him to enlarge his manufactory； when his capital has been increased by saving； nor to improve his fabrication by performing more work with the same machinery； or the same number of hands。 The whole progress of his fortune depends on the progress of his sale。* Among the causes which augment this sale； the first is the discovery of such an economy in labour as may enable the manufacturer to sell cheaper than his brethren； and to get possession of their custom： he will sell more； but they will sell less。 The consumers will make a light saving； yet； if both are subjects of the same state； the difference in regard to the national interest will not be great。 The distress of those producers； who have lost their custom； and who； probably； will lose a considerable part of their capital by selling their wares too cheap； and abandoning their former machinery； will perhaps counterbalance the profit of purchasers。 As policy is wont to comprise the obligation of social duties within the circle of our countrymen； the mutual rivalship of foreign producers has more openly displayed itself。 They have striven to exclude each other from the markets； where they came in competition； by selling at a cheaper rate。 Every national discovery； which allows the producers of one country to sell cheaper than those of other countries； inevitably increases the former's production at the latter's expense； and the profit of this saving is shared between producers who extend their market； and consumers who provide for their wants at a smaller expense。 Yet if a single manufacturer has succeeded in making this saving； which extends his market； or if the exclusive use of it is secured to him by patent； his countrymen。 also manufacturers； against whom he has made this successful competition； must support all the loss of it； whilst himself and the foreign consumer share all the profit。 In an age； when communication among different counties is easy； when all the sciences are applied to all the arts； discoveries are soon divined and copied； and a nation cannot long retain an advantage in manufacturing which it owes but to a secret； so that the market； extended for a moment by a fall in the price； is very soon shut up； and if the general consumption is not incre
