political economy-第13节
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for labour； and who thinks only of enjoyment。 The national interest； however。 sometimes also requires that property itself shall pass into hands likely to make a better use of it。 It is not for themselves alone that the rich elicit the fruits of the earth； it is for the whole nation； and if； by a derangement in their fortune； they suspend the productive power of the country； it concerns the whole nation to put their property under different managers。 Personal interest is； indeed； sufficient to bring about this transmission； provided the law offers no obstacle。 When a soldier comes to inherit a machine for making stockings； he does not keep it long； in his hands； the machine is useless for himself and the nation； in the hands of a stocking…maker it would be productive； both for the nation and the individual。 Both feel this； and a bargain is soon struck。 The soldier receives money； which he well knows how to employ； the stocking…maker receives possession of his frame； and production recommences。 Most of our European laws respecting immovable property； are like a law made to hinder the soldier from parting with the frame； of whose use he is ignorant。 The value of land cannot be unfolded； except by employing a capital sufficient to procure the accumulation of that labour which improves it。 Hence； it is essential to the very existence of a nation that its land be always in the hands of those who can devote capital to its cultivation。 If it were not in any case allowed to sell a workman's implement； it would not； certainly； at least； be forbidden to make new ones for the use of new workmen； but new lands cannot be made； and so often as the law prevents the alienation of an estate by one that cannot use it； so often does it suspend the most essential of all productions。 The systems of cultivation； which we have now glanced over in review； certainly cause the earth to produce； by the hands of temporary cultivators； when the permanent advances have been made； but they absolutely discourage such cultivators from making those permanent advances which； as they give a perpetual value to property； cannot be laid out except by those with whom that property is destined to continue。 Legislators in general； altogether occupied with preventing the alienation of immovables； and preserving great fortunes in great families； have dreaded lest such an alienation might clandestinely be brought about by a lease； for a long term； and without return。 They have eagerly attempted to defend the rights of proprietors against proprietors themselves； they have guided that class of people by forfeits and resolutory clauses； they have fixed upon a short term for farm leases； they seem continually repeating to the cultivator： 〃This land； on which you work； is not yours； acquire not too much affection for it； make no advances which you might run the risk of losing； improve the present moment； if you can； but think not of the future； above all； beware of labouring for posterity。〃 Besides； independently of legislative errors； it belongs to the very nature of a farm lease never to allow the farmer to take as much interest in the land as its proprietor。 It is enough that this lease must have an end； to induce the farmer； as this end approaches； to care less about his fields； and to cease laying out money for improving them。 The metayer； with smaller power； at least never fears to improve the land committed to him as much as possible； because the conditions of his lease are invariable； and he is never dismissed except for bad behaviour。 The farmer； again； is liable to be dismissed directly in consequence of his good management。 The more he has improved his farm； the more will his landlord； at renewing the lease； be disposed to require an augmentation of rent； and； besides； as part nf the advances laid out by the cultivator； on the ground； create a perpetual value； it is neither just nor natural that they should be made by one whose interest is merely temporary。 The farmer will carefully attend to the fields and meadows； which； in a few years； are to give him back all his advances； but he will plant few orchards； few high forests in the north； few vineyards in the south； he will make few canals for navigation； irrigation； or draining； he will transport little soil from one place to another； he will clear little ground； he will execute； in short； few of those works which are most conducive to the public interest； because they found the wealth of posterity。 None of those labours； on which the increase of the whole national subsistence depends； can be undertaken； save by a proprietor； rich in movable capital。 It is not the preservation of great fortunes that concerns the nation； but the union of territorial fortunes with circulating ones。 The fields do not flourish in the hands of those who have already too much wealth to watch over them； but in the hands of those who have enough of money to bring them into value。 Territorial legislation ought； therefore； without ceasing； to strive that movable capital be united with fixed； property which we call personal with property which we call real。 Legislation； over almost all the world； has striven to do quite the contrary。 And first； it were always for the national advantage； and favourable to the increase of its production； that the proprietor； whenever his fortune is embarrassed； should sell his property； instead of borrowing on it； yet； on the contrary； facilities have been held out to him for borrowing； rather than for sale。 A particular system of law has been created for territorial debts； marked differences have been established between real and personal property； the rank of creditors on land has been regulated according to their date； whilst an absolute equality prevails among creditors of all dates； who claim only on movable property。 And thus thousands of law…suits have been created； interminable difficulties have been started； and the time is almost come when half the lands of Europe are possessed by a people who far from possessing the power to dispose of a capital that might increase their productiveness； on the contrary； are debtors by a pretty large capital； which they cannot extract from those funds。 Hence those embarrassed proprietors have incessantly had recourse to ruinous expedients not to put money on their lands； but to take it off； to borrow of their farmers； to diminish the funds of cultivation； to sell their woods； and deteriorate their estates。 If the law had given no preference to territorial creditors； if； on the other hand it had given as much facility to a creditor for selling an immovable property； as for making seizure of a movable one； especially； if； in protecting personal liberty； sacrificed too slightly； it had permitted lands to be sold as often as it now permits the debtor to be put in prison … most old debts would be extinguished； and those immovable possessions； which ought to support the nation； would be in the hands of such as could force them； by capital and labour； to furnish the means of subsistence。 But the props lent to the pride of family by entails； fideicommissa； primogenitures； and the laws invented to hinder families in a ruinous condition from selling their property； have still further impeded the development of agriculture and industry。 The legislator aimed at fixing fortune in great families： he has fixed beggary and want in them。 On pretext of securing the patrimony of children； he has forbidden the heir of entail to sell or borrow with a sufficient security to his creditors； but he could not hinder him from going to ruin； and overwhelming himself with clamorous debts。 In that case； even the care of his honour； the feeling of justice； and his own security； oblige him to employ all the resources of his mind； all his industry in destroying his patrimony； that he may obtain the disposal of what law has reserved to his heir。 Whatever produce he can detach from the ground without replacing it； whatever advance he can dispense with laying out； is； in his eyes； just so much profit； and Europe has come to see the proprietors of noble estates； almost everywhere； the enemies of their property。 At the same time； if the legislator's object was the preservation of families； he has failed in this object； because entails condemn all the sons of a rich family to idleness； the elder out of pride； the younger out of inability。 The system has proscribed all from industry； the sole mean of increasing property； whilst it leaves them subject to all human chances； which never cease to attack whatever is ancient； and which must always； in the end； destroy whatever opulence is not renewed。
Chapter 4
Of Commercial Wealth
By labour man drew his first wealth from the earth； but scarcely had he satisfied his primitive wants； when desire made him conceive other enjoyments； not to be obtained without the aid of his fellows。 Exchanges began。 They extended to whatever had any value； to whatever could produce any； they comprised mutual services and labour； no less than the fruit of labour； and gave room to the formation and increase of a new kind of wealth； which was no longer measured by the wants of him who produced it； but by the wants of all those with whom he might transact exch
