political economy-第12节
按键盘上方向键 ← 或 → 可快速上下翻页，按键盘上的 Enter 键可回到本书目录页，按键盘上方向键 ↑ 可回到本页顶部！
————未阅读完？加入书签已便下次继续阅读！
ts not to the ground the labour of his young years； to reap the fruit of it； with interest； in his old age。 He lives each week on the wages of the last。 Ever exposed to the want of work by derangements in his master's fortune； ever ready to feel the extremes of want； from sickness； accident； or even the approaches of old age； he runs all the risks of ruin without enjoying any of the chances of fortune。 Economy in his situation is scarcely probable； but though he should succeed in collecting a little capital； the suppression of all intermediate ranks hinders him from putting it to use。 The distance between his lot and that of an extensive farmer； is too great for being passed over； whereas； in the system of cultivation on the small scale； a labourer may succeed； by his little economy； in acquiring a small farm or a small metairie； from this he may pass to a greater； and from that to every thing。 The same causes have suppressed all the intermediate stages in other departments of industry。 A gulf lies between the day…labourer and every enterprise of manufacture or trade； as well as farming； and the lower classes have now lost that help which sustained them in a former period of civilization。 Parish aids； which are secured to the day…labourer； increase his dependence。 In such a state of suffering and disquietude； it is not easy to preserve the feeling of human dignity； or the love of freedom； and thus at the highest point of modern civilization； the system of agriculture approximates to that of those corrupt periods of ancient civilization； when the whole labour of the field was performed by slaves。 The state of Ireland； and the convulsions to which that unhappy country is continually exposed； show clearly enough how important it is for the repose and security of the rich themselves； that the agricultural class； which forms the great majority of a nation； should enjoy conveniences； hope； and happiness。 The Irish peasants are ready to revolt； and plunge their country into the horrors of civil war； they live each in a miserable hut； on the produce of a few beds of potatoes； and the milk of a cow； more unhappy； at the present day； than the cottagers of England； though possessing a small property； of which the latter are destitute。 In return for their allotted portion of ground； they merely engage to work by the day； at a fixed wage； on the farm where they live； but their competition with each other has forced them to be satisfied with a wage of the lowest possible kind。 A similar competition will act likewise against the English cottagers。 There is no equality of strength between the day…labourer； who is starving； and the farmer； who does not even lose the revenue of his ground； by suppressing some of his habitual operations； and hence the result of such a struggle between the two classes； is constantly a sacrifice of the class which is poorer； more numerous； and better entitled to the protection of law。 Rich proprietors generally find that for themselves large farms are more advantageous than small ones。 The small farmer rarely employs a capital sufficient even for his little cultivation； himself is always so near to ruin； that he must begin by ruining the ground。 And certainly； in counties where the different systems of cultivation are practically set in opposition to each other； it is granted that land is ruined by letting it on lease； and reimproved by cultivating it with servants or metayers。 It is not； therefore； small farms； but metairies； which ought to be compared with large farms。 Cultivation on the great scale； spares much time which is lost in the other way； it causes a greater mass of work to be performed in the same time； by a given number of men； it tends； above all； to procure from the employment of great capitals the profit formerly procured from the employment of numerous workmen； it introduces the use of expensive instruments； which abridge and facilitate the labour of man。 It invents machines； in which the wind； the fall of water； the expansion of steam； are substituted for the power of limbs； it makes animals execute the work formerly executed by men。 It hunts the latter from trade to trade； and concludes by rendering their existence useless。 Any saving of human strength is a prodigious advantage； in a colony； where the supernumerary population may always be advantageously employed。 Humanity justly solicits the employment of machines to aid the labour of the negroes； who cannot perform what is required of them； and who used to be incessantly recruited by an infamous commerce。 But in a country where population is already too abundant； the dismissal of more than half the field…labourers is a serious misfortune； particularly at a time when a similar improvement in machinery causes the dismissal of more than half the manufacturing population of towns。 The nation is nothing else but the union of all the individuals who compose it； and the progress of its wealth is illusory； when obtained at the price of general wretchedness and morality。 Whilst； in England； the peasantry are hastening to destruction； their condition is improving in France； they are gathering strength； and without abandoning manual labour； they enjoy a kind of affluence； they unfold their minds； and adopt； though slowly； the discoveries of science。 But in France； the peasants are mostly proprietors： the number of those who cultivate their own lands prodigiously increased in the revolution； and to this cause must be attributed the rapid progress which agriculture is making in that country； in spite of a long war and heavy contributions。 Perhaps England might partly obtain a similar advantage； if these vast commons were shared among her cottagers； to whom the charm of property would thus be restored。 The most industrious provinces of France are； at this time； experiencing the unlooked … for effects of dividing property among its true cultivators； we mean the distribution of great farms among the contiguous peasantry； by a great number or particular contacts。 A large proprietor now rarely gives his farm to be cultivated by a single person； he finds it infinitely more advantageous； at present； to share his domain among a number of neighbouring peasants； each of whom takes as much land as is requisite to occupy him all the year。 No doubt； the peasant will generally sacrifice the land which he farms； to that which is his property； but both those portions are cultivated with the ardour which a direct interest excites in the labourer and with the intelligence which is developed in him； now that his lord can no longer oppress him。 The agricultural classes are as happy as the political circumstances of a country； loved with enthusiasm； permit them to be。 To conclude our review of the systems； by which territorial wealth is incessantly renewed； we ought yet to bestow a moment of attention on the system of emphyteuses or perpetual farms； the most suitable of all when government has grants of land to make。 In other systems of cultivation； the agriculturist acquires all the fruit of his annual advances； but he can never be sure of profiting from those irredeemable advances by which a perpetual value is added to land； from drainings； plantations； and breaking up of the soil。 Proprietors； of themselves； are seldom enabled to make such advances。 If they sell the land； the purchaser； in order to acquire it； must surrender that very capital； with which he might have made those improvements。 The lease of emphyteusis or plantation； which is the proper meaning of the word； was thus a very useful invention； as by it the cultivator engaged to break up a desert； on condition of acquiring the dominium utile of it for ever； whilst the proprietor reserved for himself an invariable rent to represent the dominium directum。 No expedient could more happily combine； in the same individual； affection for property； with zeal for cultivation； or more usefully employ； in improving land； the capital destined to break it up。 Although this kind of lease is known in England under the name of freehold for many lives； and though it is even of great importance in this kingdom； as the right of voting in county elections depends upon it； its beneficial influence has chiefly been experienced in Italy； where it is named livello。 In the latter country； it has restored to the most brilliant state of cultivation whole provinces； which had been allowed to run waste。 It cannot； however； become a universal mode of cultivation； because it deprives the direct proprietor of all the enjoyment of property； exposing him to all the inconveniences； with none of the advantages； in the condition of the capitalist； and because the father of a family can never be looked upon as prudent or economical； when he thus alienates his property for ever； without at least retaining the disposal of the price to be received in exchange for it。 For re…producing territorial wealth； it is sufficient； in general； that the use of the ground be transmitted to the industrious man； who may turn it to advantage； whilst the property of it continues with the rich man； who has no longer the same incitements or the same fitness for labour； and who thinks only of enjoyment。 The national interest； however。 sometimes also requir
