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or　to　grow　spontaneously；　but　to　be　a　thing　which　may　be　taught；　and



which　comes　to　a　man　by　taking　pains。　No　one　would　instruct；　no　one



would　rebuke；　or　be　angry　with　those　whose　calamities　they　suppose



to　be　due　to　nature　or　chance；　they　do　not　try　to　punish　or　to　prevent



them　from　being　what　they　are；　they　do　but　pity　them。　Who　is　so



foolish　as　to　chastise　or　instruct　the　ugly；　or　the　diminutive；　or　the



feeble？　And　for　this　reason。　Because　he　knows　that　good　and　evil　of



this　kind　is　the　work　of　nature　and　of　chance；　whereas　if　a　man　is



wanting　in　those　good　qualities　which　are　attained　by　study　and



exercise　and　teaching；　and　has　only　the　contrary　evil　qualities；　other



men　are　angry　with　him；　and　punish　and　reprove　him…of　these　evil



qualities　one　is　impiety；　another　injustice；　and　they　may　be　described



generally　as　the　very　opposite　of　political　virtue。　In　such　cases



any　man　will　be　angry　with　another；　and　reprimand　him；…clearly　because



he　thinks　that　by　study　and　learning；　the　virtue　in　which　the　other　is



deficient　may　be　acquired。　If　you　will　think；　Socrates；　of　the



nature　of　punishment；　you　will　see　at　once　that　in　the　opinion　of



mankind　virtue　may　be　acquired；　no　one　punishes　the　evil…doer　under



the　notion；　or　for　the　reason；　that　he　has　done　wrong；　only　the



unreasonable　fury　of　a　beast　acts　in　that　manner。　But　he　who　desires



to　inflict　rational　punishment　does　not　retaliate　for　a　past　wrong



which　cannot　be　undone；　he　has　regard　to　the　future；　and　is　desirous



that　the　man　who　is　punished；　and　he　who　sees　him　punished；　may　be



deterred　from　doing　wrong　again。　He　punishes　for　the　sake　of



prevention；　thereby　clearly　implying　that　virtue　is　capable　of　being



taught。　This　is　the　notion　of　all　who　retaliate　upon　others　either



privately　or　publicly。　And　the　Athenians；　too；　your　own　citizens；　like



other　men；　punish　and　take　vengeance　on　all　whom　they　regard　as　evil



doers；　and　hence；　we　may　infer　them　to　be　of　the　number　of　those　who



think　that　virtue　may　be　acquired　and　taught。　Thus　far；　Socrates；　I



have　shown　you　clearly　enough；　if　I　am　not　mistaken；　that　your



countrymen　are　right　in　admitting　the　tinker　and　the　cobbler　to　advise



about　politics；　and　also　that　they　deem　virtue　to　be　capable　of



being　taught　and　acquired。



　　There　yet　remains　one　difficulty　which　has　been　raised　by　you



about　the　sons　of　good　men。　What　is　the　reason　why　good　men　teach



their　sons　the　knowledge　which　is　gained　from　teachers；　and　make



them　wise　in　that；　but　do　nothing　towards　improving　them　in　the



virtues　which　distinguish　themselves？　And　here；　Socrates；　I　will　leave



the　apologue　and　resume　the　argument。　Please　to　consider：　Is　there



or　is　there　not　some　one　quality　of　which　all　the　citizens　must　be



partakers；　if　there　is　to　be　a　city　at　all？　In　the　answer　to　this



question　is　contained　the　only　solution　of　your　difficulty；　there　is



no　other。　For　if　there　be　any　such　quality；　and　this　quality　or



unity　is　not　the　art　of　the　carpenter；　or　the　smith；　or　the　potter；



but　justice　and　temperance　and　holiness　and；　in　a　word；　manly



virtue…if　this　is　the　quality　of　which　all　men　must　be　partakers；



and　which　is　the　very　condition　of　their　learning　or　doing　anything



else；　and　if　he　who　is　wanting　in　this；　whether　he　be　a　child　only



or　a　grown…up　man　or　woman；　must　be　taught　and　punished；　until　by



punishment　he　becomes　better；　and　he　who　rebels　against　instruction



and　punishment　is　either　exiled　or　condemned　to　death　under　the　idea



that　he　is　incurable…if　what　I　am　saying　be　true；　good　men　have



their　sons　taught　other　things　and　not　this；　do　consider　how



extraordinary　their　conduct　would　appear　to　be。　For　we　have　shown　that



they　think　virtue　capable　of　being　taught　and　cultivated　both　in



private　and　public；　and；　notwithstanding；　they　have　their　sons



taught　lesser　matters；　ignorance　of　which　does　not　involve　the



punishment　of　death：　but　greater　things；　of　which　the　ignorance　may



cause　death　and　exile　to　those　who　have　no　training　or　knowledge　of



them…aye；　and　confiscation　as　well　as　death；　and；　in　a　word；　may　be



the　ruin　of　families…those　things；　I　say；　they　are　supposed　not　to



teach　them…not　to　take　the　utmost　care　that　they　should　learn。　How



improbable　is　this；　Socrates！



　　Education　and　admonition　commence　in　the　first　years　of　childhood；



and　last　to　the　very　end　of　life。　Mother　and　nurse　and　father　and



tutor　are　vying　with　one　another　about　the　improvement　of　the　child　as



soon　as　ever　he　is　able　to　understand　what　is　being　said　to　him：　he



cannot　say　or　do　anything　without　their　setting　forth　to　him　that　this



is　just　and　that　is　unjust；　this　is　honourable；　that　is　dishonourable；



this　is　holy；　that　is　unholy；　do　this　and　abstain　from　that。　And　if　he



obeys；　well　and　good；　if　not；　he　is　straightened　by　threats　and　blows；



like　a　piece　of　bent　or　warped　wood。　At　a　later　stage　they　send　him　to



teachers；　and　enjoin　them　to　see　to　his　manners　even　more　than　to



his　reading　and　music；　and　the　teachers　do　as　they　are　desired。　And



when　the　boy　has　learned　his　letters　and　is　beginning　to　understand



what　is　written；　as　before　he　understood　only　what　was　spoken；　they



put　into　his　hands　the　works　of　great　poets；　which　he　reads　sitting　on



a　bench　at　school；　in　these　are　contained　many　admonitions；　and　many



tales；　and　praises；　and　encomia　of　ancient　famous　men；　which　he　is



required　to　learn　by　heart；　in　order　that　he　may　imitate　or　emulate



them　and　desire　to　become　like　them。　Then；　again；　the　teachers　of



the　lyre　take　similar　care　that　their　young　disciple　is　temperate



and　gets　into　no　mischief；　and　when　they　have　taught　him　the　use　of



the　lyre；　they　introduce　him　to　the　poems　of　other　excellent　poets；



who　are　the　lyric　poets；　and　these　they　set　to　music；　and　make　their



harmonies　ana　rhythms　quite　familiar　to　the　children's　souls；　in　order



that　they　may　learn　to　be　more　gentle；　and　harmonious；　and　rhythmical；



and　so　more　fitted　for　speech　and　action；　for　the　life　of　man　in　every



part　has　need　of　harmony　and　rhythm。　Then　they　send　them　to　the　master



of　gymnastic；　in　order　that　their　bodies　may　better　minister　to　the



virtuous　mind；　and　that　they　may　not　be　compelled　through　bodily



weakness　to　play　the　coward　in　war　or　on　any　other　occasion。　This　is



what　is　done　by　those　who　have　the　means；　and　those　who　have　the　means



are　the　rich；　their　children　begin　to　go　to　school　soonest　and　leave



off　latest。　When　they　have　done　with　masters；　the　state　again



compels　them　to　learn　the　laws；　and　live　after　the　pattern　which



they　furnish；　and　not　after　their　own　fancies；　and　just　as　in　learning



to　write；　the　writing…master　first　draws　lines　with　a　style　for　the



use　of　the　young　beginner；　and　gives　him　the　tablet　and　makes　him



follow　the　lines；　so　the　city　draws　the　laws；　which　were　the　invention



of　good　lawgivers　living　in　the　olden　time；　these　are　given　to　the



young　man；　in　order　to　guide　him　in　his　conduct　whether　he　is



commanding　or　obeying；　and　he　who　transgresses　them　is　to　be



corrected；　or；　in　other　words；　called　to　account；　which　is　a　term　used



not　only　in　your　country；　but　also　in　many　others；　seeing　that　justice



calls　men　to　account。　Now　when　there　is　all　this　care　about　virtue



private　and　public；　why；　Socrates；　do　you　still　wonder　and　doubt



whether　virtue　can　be　taught？　Cease　to　wonder；　for　the　opposite



would　be　far　more　surprising。



　　But　why　then　do　the　sons　of　good　fathers　often　turn　out　ill？　There



is　nothing　very　wonderful　in　this；　for；　as　I　have　been　saying；　the



existence　of　a　state　implies　that　virtue　is　not　any　man's　private



possession。　If　so…and　nothing　can　be　truer…then　I　will　further　ask　you



to　imagine；　as　an　illustration；　some　other　pursuit　or　branch　of



knowledge　which　may　be　assumed　equally　to　be　the　condition　of　the



existence　of　a　state。　Suppose　that　there　could　be　no　state　unless　we



were　all　flute…players；　as　far　as　each　had　the　capacity；　and　everybody



was　freely　teaching　everybody　the　art；　both　in　private　and　public；　and



reproving　the　bad　player　as　freely　and　openly　as　every　man　now　teaches



justice　and　the　laws；　not　concealing　them　as　he　would　conceal　the



other　arts；　but　imparting　them…for　all　of　us　have　a　mutual　interest　in



the　justice　and　virtue　of　one　another；　and　this　is　the　reason　why



every　one　is　so　ready　to　teach　justice　and　the　laws；…suppose；　I　say；



that　there　were　the　same　readiness　and　liberality　among　us　in　teaching



one　another　flute…playing；　do　you　imagine；　Socrates；　that　the　sons



of　good　flute　players　would　be　more　likely　to　be　good　than　the　sons　of



bad　ones？　I　think　not。　Would　not　their　sons　grow　up　to　be



distinguished　or　undistinguished　according　to　their　own　natural



capacities　as　flute…players；　and　the　son　of　a　good　player　would



often