the origins of contemporary france-4-第118节

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has　the　right　to　discharge　his　obligations　by　paying　his　debts　in

assignats。　　Enumerate；　if　possible；　all　who　are　defrauded　of　private

claims；　all　money…lenders　and　stockholders　who　have　invested　in　any

private　enterprise；　either　manufacturing　or　mercantile；　those　who　have

loaned　money　on　Contracts　of　longer　or　shorter　date；　all　sellers　of

real　estate；　with　stipulations　in　their　deeds　for　more　or　less　remote

payment；　all　landowners　who　have　leased　their　grounds　or　buildings　for

a　term　of　years；　all　holders　of　annuities　on　private　bond　or　on　an

estate；　all　manufacturers；　merchants　and　farmers　who　have　sold　their

wares；　goods　and　produce　on　time；　all　clerks　on　yearly　salaries　and

even　all　other　employees；　underlings；　servants　and　workmen　receiving

fixed　salaries　for　a　specified　term。　　There　is　not　one　of　these

persons　whose　capital；　or　income　payable　in　assignats；　is　not　at　once

crippled　in　proportion　to　the　decline　in　value　of　assignats；　so　that

not　only　the　State　falls　into　bankruptcy　but　likewise　every　creditor

in　France；　legally　bankrupt　along　with　it　through　its　fault。



In　such　a　situation　how　can　any　enterprise　be　commenced　or　maintained？

Who　dares　take　a　risk；　especially　when　disbursements　are　large　and

returns　remote？　Who　dares　lend　on　long　credits　…　？　If　loans　are　still

made　they　are　not　for　a　year　but　for　a　month；　while　the　interest

which；　before　the　Revolution　was　six；　five　or　even　four　per　cent。　　per

annum；　is　now　two　per　cent。　　a　month　on　securities。〃　It　soon　runs　up

higher　and；　at　Paris　and　Strasbourg　we　see　it　rising；　as　in　India　and

the　Barbary　States；　to　four；　five；　six　and　even　seven　per　cent。　　a

month。＇14＇



What　holder　of　raw　material；　or　of　manufactured　goods；　would　dare　make

entries　on　his　books　as　usual　and　allow　his　customer　the　indispensable

credit　of　three　months？　What　large　manufacturer　would　presume　to　make

goods　up；　what　wholesale　merchant　would　care　to　make　shipments；　what

man　of　wealth　or　with　a　competence　would　build；　drain　and　construct

dams　and　dykes；　repair；　or　even　maintain　them　with　the　positive

certainty　of　delays　in　getting　back　only　one…half　his　outlays　and　with

the　increasing　certainty　of　getting　nothing？



During　a　few　years　the　large　establishments　collapsed　in　droves：



*　After　the　ruin　of　the　nobles　and　the　departure　of　wealthy

foreigners；　every　craft　dependent　on　luxurious　tastes；　those　of　Paris

and　Lyons；　which　were　the　standard　for　Europe；　all　the　manufactories

of　rich　fabrics　and　furniture；　and　other　artistic；　elegant　and

fashionable　articles。



*　After　the　insurrection　of　the　blacks　in　St。　　Domingo；　and　other

troubles　in　the　West　Indies；　the　great　colonial　trade　and　remarkable

prosperity　of　Nantes　and　Bordeaux；　including　all　the　industrial

enterprises　by　which　the　production；　transportation　and　circulation　of

cotton；　sugar　and　coffee　were　affected；＇15＇



*　After　the　declaration　of　war　with　England；　the　shipping　interest；



*　After　the　declaration　of　war　with　all　Europe；　the　commerce　of　the

continent。＇16＇



Failure　after　failure；　an　universal　crash；　utter　cessation　of

extensively　organized　and　productive　labor：　instead　of　productive

industries；　I　see　none　now　but　destructive　industries；　those　of　the

agricultural　and　commercial　vermin；　those　of　dealers　in　junk　and

speculators　who　dismantle　mansions　and　abbeys；　and　who　demolish

chateaux　and　churches　so　as　to　sell　the　materials　as　cheap　as　dirt；

who　bargain　away　national　possessions；　so　as　to　make　a　profit　on　the

transaction。　　Imagine　the　mischief　a　temporary　owner；　steeped　in　debt；

needy　and　urged　on　by　the　maturity　of　his　engagements；　can　and　must　do

to　an　estate　held　under　a　precarious　title　and　of　suspicious

acquirement；　which　he　has　no　idea　of　keeping；　and　from　which；

meanwhile；　he　derives　every　possible　benefit：＇17＇　not　only　does　he　put

no　spokes　in　the　mill…wheel；　no　stones　in　the　dyke；　no　tiles　on　the

roof；　but　he　buys　no　manure；　exhausts　the　soil；　devastates　the　forest；

alienates　the　fields；　and　dismembers　the　entire　farm；　damaging　the

ground　and　the　stock　of　tools　and　injuring　the　dwelling　by　selling　its

mirrors；　lead　and　iron；　and　oftentimes　the　window…shutters　and　doors。

He　turns　all　into　cash；　no　matter　how；　at　the　expense　of　the　domain；

which　he　leaves　in　a　run…down　condition；　unfurnished　and　for　a　long

time　unproductive。　　In　like　manner；　the　communal　possessions；　ravaged；

pillaged　and　then　pieced　out　and　divided　off；　are　so　many　organisms

which　are　sacrificed　for　the　immediate　relief　of　the　village　poor；　but

of　course　to　the　detriment　of　their　future　productiveness　and　an

abundant　yield。＇18＇



Alone；　amongst　these　millions　of　men　who　have　stopped　working；　or　work

the　wrong　way；　the　petty　cultivator　labors　to　advantage；　free　of

taxes；　of　tithes　and　of　feudal　imposts；　possessing　a　scrap　of　ground

which　he　has　obtained　for　almost　nothing　or　without　stretching　his

purse　strings；　he　works　in　good　spirits。＇19＇　　He　is　sure　that

henceforth　his　crop　will　no　longer　be　eaten　up　by　the　levies　of　the

seignior；　of　the　décimateur　and　of　the　King；　that　it　will　belong　to

him；　that　it　will　be　wholly　his；　and　that　the　worse　the　famine　in　the

towns；　the　dearer　he　will　sell　his　produce。　　Hence；　he　has　ploughed

more　vigorously　than　ever；　he　has　even　cleared　waste　ground；　getting

the　soil　gratis；　or　nearly　so；　and　having　to　make　but　few　advances；

having　no　other　use　for　his　advances；　consisting　of　seed；　manure；　the

work　of　his　cattle　and　of　his　own　hands；　he　has　planted；　reaped　and

raised　grain　with　the　greatest　energy。　　Perhaps　other　articles　of

consumption　will　be　scarce；　it　may　be　that；　owing　to　the　ruin　of　other

branches　of　industry；　it　will　be　hard　to　get　dry…goods；　shoes；　sugar；

soap；　oil；　candles；　wine　and　brandy；　it　may　happen　that；　owing　to　the

bungling　way　in　which　agricultural　transformations　have　been　effected；

all　produce　of　the　secondary　order；　meat；　vegetables；　butter　and　eggs；

may　become　scarce。　　In　any　event；　French　foodstuffs　par　excellence　is

on　hand；　standing　in　the　field　or　stored　in　sheaves　in　the　barns；　in

1792　and　1793；　and　even　in　1794；　there　is　enough　grain　in　France　to

provide　every　French　inhabitant　with　his　daily　bread。＇20＇



But　that　is　not　enough。　　In　order　that　each　Frenchman　may　obtain　his

bit　of　bread　every　day；　it　is　still　essential　that　grain　should　reach

the　markets　in　sufficient　quantities；　and　that　the　bakers　should　every

day　have　enough　flour　to　make　all　the　bread　that　is　required；

moreover；　the　bread　offered　for　sale　in　the　bakeries　should　not　exceed

the　price　which　the　majority　of　consumers　can　afford　to　pay。　　Now；　in

fact；　through　a　forced　result　of　the　new　system；　neither　of　these

conditions　is　fulfilled。　　…　In　the　first　place；　wheat；　and　hence

bread；　is　too　dear。　　Even　at　the　old　rate；　these　would　still　be　too

dear　for　the　innumerable　empty　or　half…empty　purses；　after　so　many

attacks　on　property；　industry　and　trade；　now　that　so　many　hundreds　of

workmen　and　employees　are　out　of　work；　now　that　so　many　land…owners

and　bourgeois　receive　no　rents；　now　that　incomes；　profits；　wages　and

salaries　have　diminished　by　hundreds　of　thousands。　　But　wheat；　and；

consequently；　bread；　has　not　remained　at　old　rates。　　Formerly　a　sack

of　wheat　in　Paris　was　worth　50　francs。　　In　February；　1793；　it　is　worth

sixty…five　francs；　in　May；　1793；　one　hundred　francs　and　then　one

hundred　and　fifty；　and　hence　bread；　in　Paris；　early　in　1793；　instead

of　being　three　sous　the　pound；　costs　six　sous；　in　many　of　the　southern

departments　seven　and　eight　sous；　and　in　other　places　ten　and　twelve

sous。＇21＇　The　reason　is；　that；　since　August　10；　1792；　after　the　King's

fall　and　the　wrenching　away　of　the　ancient　keystone　of　the　arch　which

still　kept　the　loosened　stones　of　the　social　edifice　in　place；　the

frightened　peasant　would　no　longer　part　with　his　produce；　he

determined　not　to　take　assignats；　not　to　let　his　grain　go　for　anything

but　ringing　coin。　　To　exchange　good　wheat　for　bad；　dirty　paper　rags

seemed　to　him　a　trick；　and　justly　so；　for；　on　going　to　town　every

month　he　found　that　the　dealers　gave　him　less　merchandise　for　these

rags。　　Being　distrustful　and　a　hoarder；　he　must　have　good；　old

fashioned　crowns；　with　the　ancient　effigy；　so　as　to　lay　them　away　in　a

jar　or　old　woollen　stocking；　give　him　specie　or　he　will　keep　his

grain。　　For　he　is　not；　as　formerly；　obliged　to　part　with　it　as　soon　as

it　is　cut；　to　pay　taxes　and　rent；　the　bailiff　and　sheriff　are　no

longer　there　to　constrain　him；　in　these　times　of　disorder　and

demagoguism；　under　impotent　or　partial　authorities；　neither　the　public

nor　the　private　creditor　has　the　power　to　compel　payment；　while　the

spurs　which　formerly　impelled　the　farmer　to　seek　the　nearest　market

are　blunted　or　broken。　　He　therefore　stays　away；　and　he　has　excellent

reasons　for　so　doing。　　Vagabonds　and　the　needy　stand　by　the　roadside

and　at　the　entrances　of　the　towns　to　stop　and　pillage　the　loaded

carts；　in　the　ma