proposed roads to freedom(通往自由之路)-第3节
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PROPOSED ROADS TO FREEDOM
true are the very same as the men whom their compatriots know as
husbands or fathers or friends； but they are judged differently because they
are judged on different data。 And so it is with those who view the capitalist
from the standpoint of the revolutionary wage…earner： they appear
inconceivably cynical and misjudging to the capitalist； because the facts
upon which their view is based are facts which he either does not know or
habitually ignores。 Yet the view from the outside is just as true as the view
from the inside。 Both are necessary to the complete truth； and the Socialist；
who emphasizes the outside view； is not a cynic； but merely the friend of
the wage…earners； maddened by the spectacle of the needless misery which
capitalism inflicts upon them。
I have placed these general reflections at the beginning of our study； in
order to make it clear to the reader that； whatever bitterness and hate may
be found in the movements which we are to examine； it is not bitterness or
hate； but love； that is their mainspring。 It is difficult not to hate those who
torture the objects of our love。 Though difficult； it is not impossible； but it
requires a breadth of outlook and a comprehensiveness of understanding
which are not easy to preserve amid a desperate contest。 If ultimate
wisdom has not always been preserved by Socialists and Anarchists； they
have not differed in this from their opponents； and in the source of their
inspiration they have shown themselves superior to those who acquiesce
ignorantly or supinely in the injustices and oppressions by which the
existing system is preserved。
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PART I
HISTORICAL
CHAPTER I
MARX AND SOCIALIST DOCTRINE
SOCIALISM； like everything else that is vital； is rather a tendency
than a strictly definable body of doctrine。 A definition of Socialism is sure
either to include some views which many would regard as not Socialistic；
or to exclude others which claim to be included。 But I think we shall come
nearest to the essence of Socialism by defining it as the advocacy of
communal ownership of land and capital。 Communal ownership may
mean ownership by a democratic State； but cannot be held to include
ownership by any State which is not democratic。 Communal ownership
may also be understood； as Anarchist Communism understands it； in the
sense of ownership by the free association of the men and women in a
community without those compulsory powers which are necessary to
constitute a State。 Some Socialists expect communal ownership to arrive
suddenly and completely by a catastrophic revolution； while others expect
it to come gradually； first in one industry； then in another。 Some insist
upon the necessity of completeness in the acquisition of land and capital
by the public； while others would be content to see lingering islands of
private ownership； provided they were not too extensive or powerful。
What all forms have in common is democracy and the abolition； virtual or
complete； of the present capitalistic system。 The distinction between
Socialists； Anarchists and Syndicalists turns largely upon the kind of
democracy which they desire。 Orthodox Socialists are content with
parliamentary democracy in the sphere of government； holding that the
evils apparent in this form of constitution at present would disappear with
the disappearance of capitalism。 Anarchists and Syndicalists； on the other
hand； object to the whole parliamentary machinery； and aim at a different
method of regulating the political affairs of the community。 But all alike
are democratic in the sense that they aim at abolishing every kind of
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PROPOSED ROADS TO FREEDOM
privilege and every kind of artificial inequality： all alike are champions of
the wage… earner in existing society。 All three also have much in common
in their economic doctrine。 All three regard capital and the wages system
as a means of exploiting the laborer in the interests of the possessing
classes； and hold that communal ownership； in one form or another； is the
only means of bringing freedom to the producers。 But within the
framework of this common doctrine there are many divergences； and even
among those who are strictly to be called Socialists； there is a very
considerable diversity of schools。
Socialism as a power in Europe may be said to begin with Marx。 It is
true that before his time there were Socialist theories； both in England and
in France。 It is also true that in France； during the revolution of 1848；
Socialism for a brief period acquired considerable influence in the State。
But the Socialists who preceded Marx tended to indulge in Utopian
dreams and failed to found any strong or stable political party。 To Marx； in
collaboration with Engels； are due both the formulation of a coherent body
of Socialist doctrine； sufficiently true or plausible to dominate the minds
of vast numbers of men； and the formation of the International Socialist
movement； which has continued to grow in all European countries
throughout the last fifty years。
In order to understand Marx's doctrine； it is necessary to know
something of the influences which formed his outlook。 He was born in
1818 at Treves in the Rhine Provinces； his father being a legal official； a
Jew who had nominally accepted Christianity。 Marx studied jurisprudence；
philosophy； political economy and history at various German universities。
In philosophy he imbibed the doctrines of Hegel； who was then at the
height of his fame； and something of these doctrines dominated his
thought throughout his life。 Like Hegel； he saw in history the development
of an Idea。 He conceived the changes in the world as forming a logical
development； in which one phase passes by revolution into another； which
is its antithesisa conception which gave to his views a certain hard
abstractness； and a belief in revolution rather than evolution。 But of
Hegel's more definite doctrines Marx retained nothing after his youth。 He
was recognized as a brilliant student； and might have had a prosperous
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career as a professor or an official； but his interest in politics and his
Radical views led him into more arduous paths。 Already in 1842 he
became editor of a newspaper； which was suppressed by the Prussian
Government early in the following year on account of its advanced
opinions。 This led Marx to go to Paris； where he became known as a
Socialist and acquired a knowledge of his French predecessors。＇1＇ Here in
the year 1844 began his lifelong friendship with Engels； who had been
hitherto in business in Manchester； where he had become acquainted with
English Socialism and had in the main adopted its doctrines。＇2＇ In 1845
Marx was expelled from Paris and went with Engels to live in Brussels。
There he formed a German Working Men's Association and edited a paper
which was their organ。 Through his activities in Brussels he became
known to the German Communist League in Paris； who； at the end of
1847； invited him and Engels to draw up for them a manifesto； which
appeared in January； 1848。 This is the famous ‘‘Communist Manifesto；'' in
which for the first time Marx's system is set forth。 It appeared at a
fortunate moment。 In the following month； February； the revolution broke
out in Paris； and in March it spread to Ge
