the golden bough-第88节

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explain　the　presence　of　a　number　of　synonyms　in　the　language　of　the　tribe。　This　conjecture　is　confirmed　by　what　we　know　of　some　Victorian　tribes　whose　speech　comprised　a　regular　set　of　synonyms　to　be　used　instead　of　the　common　terms　by　all　members　of　a　tribe　in　times　of　mourning。　For　instance；　if　a　man　called　Waa　（　crow）　departed　this　life；　during　the　period　of　mourning　for　him　nobody　might　call　a　crow　a　waa；　everybody　had　to　speak　of　the　bird　as　a　narrapart。　When　a　person　who　rejoiced　in　the　title　of　Ringtail　Opossum　（weearn）　had　gone　the　way　of　all　flesh；　his　sorrowing　relations　and　the　tribe　at　large　were　bound　for　a　time　to　refer　to　ringtail　opossums　by　the　more　sonorous　name　of　manuungkuurt。　If　the　community　were　plunged　in　grief　for　the　loss　of　a　respected　female　who　bore　the　honourable　name　of　Turkey　Bustard；　the　proper　name　for　turkey　bustards；　which　was　barrim　barrim；　went　out；　and　tillit　tilliitsh　came　in。　And　so　mutatis　mutandis　with　the　names　of　Black　Cockatoo；　Grey　Duck；　Gigantic　Crane；　Kangaroo；　Eagle；　Dingo；　and　the　rest。

A　similar　custom　used　to　be　constantly　transforming　the　language　of　the　Abipones　of　Paraguay；　amongst　whom；　however；　a　word　once　abolished　seems　never　to　have　been　revived。　New　words；　says　the　missionary　Dobrizhoffer；　sprang　up　every　year　like　mushrooms　in　a　night；　because　all　words　that　resembled　the　names　of　the　dead　were　abolished　by　proclamation　and　others　coined　in　their　place。　The　mint　of　words　was　in　the　hands　of　the　old　women　of　the　tribe；　and　whatever　term　they　stamped　with　their　approval　and　put　in　circulation　was　immediately　accepted　without　a　murmur　by　high　and　low　alike；　and　spread　like　wildfire　through　every　camp　and　settlement　of　the　tribe。　You　would　be　astonished；　says　the　same　missionary；　to　see　how　meekly　the　whole　nation　acquiesces　in　the　decision　of　a　withered　old　hag；　and　how　completely　the　old　familiar　words　fall　instantly　out　of　use　and　are　never　repeated　either　through　force　of　habit　or　forgetfulness。　In　the　seven　years　that　Dobrizhoffer　spent　among　these　Indians　the　native　word　for　jaguar　was　changed　thrice；　and　the　words　for　crocodile；　thorn；　and　the　slaughter　of　cattle　underwent　similar　though　less　varied　vicissitudes。　As　a　result　of　this　habit；　the　vocabularies　of　the　missionaries　teemed　with　erasures；　old　words　having　constantly　to　be　struck　out　as　obsolete　and　new　ones　inserted　in　their　place。　In　many　tribes　of　British　New　Guinea　the　names　of　persons　are　also　the　names　of　common　things。　The　people　believe　that　if　the　name　of　a　deceased　person　is　pronounced；　his　spirit　will　return；　and　as　they　have　no　wish　to　see　it　back　among　them　the　mention　of　his　name　is　tabooed　and　a　new　word　is　created　to　take　its　place；　whenever　the　name　happens　to　be　a　common　term　of　the　language。　Consequently　many　words　are　permanently　lost　or　revived　with　modified　or　new　meanings。　In　the　Nicobar　Islands　a　similar　practice　has　similarly　affected　the　speech　of　the　natives。　A　most　singular　custom；　says　Mr。　de　Roepstorff；　prevails　among　them　which　one　would　suppose　must　most　effectually　hinder　the　'making　of　history；'　or；　at　any　rate；　the　transmission　of　historical　narrative。　By　a　strict　rule；　which　has　all　the　sanction　of　Nicobar　superstition；　no　man's　name　may　be　mentioned　after　his　death！　To　such　a　length　is　this　carried　that　when；　as　very　frequently　happens；　the　man　rejoiced　in　the　name　of　'Fowl；'　'Hat'；　'Fire；'　'Road；'　etc。；　in　its　Nicobarese　equivalent；　the　use　of　these　words　is　carefully　eschewed　for　the　future；　not　only　as　being　the　personal　designation　of　the　deceased；　but　even　as　the　names　of　the　common　things　they　represent；　the　words　die　out　of　the　language；　and　either　new　vocables　are　coined　to　express　the　thing　intended；　or　a　substitute　for　the　disused　word　is　found　in　other　Nicobarese　dialects　or　in　some　foreign　tongue。　This　extraordinary　custom　not　only　adds　an　element　of　instability　to　the　language；　but　destroys　the　continuity　of　political　life；　and　renders　the　record　of　past　events　precarious　and　vague；　if　not　impossible。

That　a　superstition　which　suppresses　the　names　of　the　dead　must　cut　at　the　very　root　of　historical　tradition　has　been　remarked　by　other　workers　in　this　field。　The　Klamath　people；　observes　Mr。　A。　S。　Gatschet；　possess　no　historic　traditions　going　further　back　in　time　than　a　century；　for　the　simple　reason　that　there　was　a　strict　law　prohibiting　the　mention　of　the　person　or　acts　of　a　deceased　individual　by　using　his　name。　This　law　was　rigidly　observed　among　the　Californians　no　less　than　among　the　Oregonians；　and　on　its　transgression　the　death　penalty　could　be　inflicted。　This　is　certainly　enough　to　suppress　all　historical　knowledge　within　a　people。　How　can　history　be　written　without　names？

In　many　tribes；　however；　the　power　of　this　superstition　to　blot　out　the　memory　of　the　past　is　to　some　extent　weakened　and　impaired　by　a　natural　tendency　of　the　human　mind。　Time；　which　wears　out　the　deepest　impressions；　inevitably　dulls；　if　it　does　not　wholly　efface；　the　print　left　on　the　savage　mind　by　the　mystery　and　horror　of　death。　Sooner　or　later；　as　the　memory　of　his　loved　ones　fades　slowly　away；　he　becomes　more　willing　to　speak　of　them；　and　thus　their　rude　names　may　sometimes　be　rescued　by　the　philosophic　enquirer　before　they　have　vanished；　like　autumn　leaves　or　winter　snows；　into　the　vast　undistinguished　limbo　of　the　past。　In　some　of　the　Victorian　tribes　the　prohibition　to　mention　the　names　of　the　dead　remained　in　force　only　during　the　period　of　mourning；　in　the　Port　Lincoln　tribe　of　South　Australia　it　lasted　many　years。　Among　the　Chinook　Indians　of　North　America　custom　forbids　the　mention　of　a　dead　man's　name；　at　least　till　many　years　have　elapsed　after　the　bereavement。　Among　the　Puyallup　Indians　the　observance　of　the　taboo　is　relaxed　after　several　years；　when　the　mourners　have　forgotten　their　grief；　and　if　the　deceased　was　a　famous　warrior；　one　of　his　descendants；　for　instance　a　great…grandson；　may　be　named　after　him。　In　this　tribe　the　taboo　is　not　much　observed　at　any　time　except　by　the　relations　of　the　dead。　Similarly　the　Jesuit　missionary　Lafitau　tells　us　that　the　name　of　the　departed　and　the　similar　names　of　the　survivors　were；　so　to　say；　buried　with　the　corpse　until；　the　poignancy　of　their　grief　being　abated；　it　pleased　the　relations　to　lift　up　the　tree　and　raise　the　dead。　By　raising　the　dead　they　meant　bestowing　the　name　of　the　departed　upon　some　one　else；　who　thus　became　to　all　intents　and　purposes　a　reincarnation　of　the　deceased；　since　on　the　principles　of　savage　philosophy　the　name　is　a　vital　part；　if　not　the　soul；　of　the　man。

Among　the　Lapps；　when　a　woman　was　with　child　and　near　the　time　of　her　delivery；　a　deceased　ancestor　or　relation　used　to　appear　to　her　in　a　dream　and　inform　her　what　dead　person　was　to　be　born　again　in　her　infant；　and　whose　name　the　child　was　therefore　to　bear。　If　the　woman　had　no　such　dream；　it　fell　to　the　father　or　the　relatives　to　determine　the　name　by　divination　or　by　consulting　a　wizard。　Among　the　Khonds　a　birth　is　celebrated　on　the　seventh　day　after　the　event　by　a　feast　given　to　the　priest　and　to　the　whole　village。　To　determine　the　child's　name　the　priest　drops　grains　of　rice　into　a　cup　of　water；　naming　with　each　grain　a　deceased　ancestor。　From　the　movements　of　the　seed　in　the　water；　and　from　observations　made　on　the　person　of　the　infant；　he　pronounces　which　of　his　progenitors　has　reappeared　in　him；　and　the　child　generally；　at　least　among　the　northern　tribes；　receives　the　name　of　that　ancestor。　Among　the　Yorubas；　soon　after　a　child　has　been　born；　a　priest　of　Ifa；　the　god　of　divination；　appears　on　the　scene　to　ascertain　what　ancestral　soul　has　been　reborn　in　the　infant。　As　soon　as　this　has　been　decided；　the　parents　are　told　that　the　child　must　conform　in　all　respects　to　the　manner　of　life　of　the　ancestor　who　now　animates　him　or　her；　and　if；　as　often　happens；　they　profess　ignorance；　the　priest　supplies　the　necessary　information。　The　child　usually　receives　the　name　of　the　ancestor　who　has　been　born　again　in　him。

4。　Names　of　Kings　and　other　Sacred　Persons　tabooed。

WHEN　we　see　that　in　primitive　society　the　names　of　mere　commoners；　whether　alive　or　dead；　are　matters　of　such　anxious　care；　we　need　not　be　surprised　that　great　precautions　should　be　taken　to　guard　from　harm　the　names　of　sacred　kings　and　priests。　Thus　the　name　of　the　king　of　Dahomey　is　always　kept　secret；　lest　the　knowledge　of　it　should　enable　some　evil…minded　person　to　do　him　a　mischief。　The　appellations　by　which　the　different　kings　of　Dahomey　have　been　known　to　Europeans　are　not　their　true　names；　but　mere　titles；　or　what　the　natives　call　strong　names。　The　natives　seem　to　think　that　no　harm　comes　of　such　titles　being　known；　since　they　are　not；　like　the　birth…names；　vitally　connected　with　their　owners。　In　the　Galla　kingdom　of　Ghera　the　birth…name　of　the　sovereign　may　not　be　pronounced　by　a　subject　under　pain　of　death；　and　common　words　which　resemble　it　in　sound　are　changed　for　others。　Among　the　Bahima　of　Central　Africa；　when　the　king　dies；　his　name　is　abolished　from　the　language；　and　if　his　name　was　that　of　an　animal；　a　new　appellation　must　be　found　for　the　creature　at　once。　For　example；　the　king　is　often　called　a　lion；　hence　at　the　death　of　a　king　named　Lion　a　new　name　f