the golden bough-第219节

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amities　which　threaten　them　from　such　causes　as　thunder　and　lightning；　conflagration；　blight；　mildew；　vermin；　sterility；　disease；　and　not　least　of　all　witchcraft。

But　we　naturally　ask；　How　did　it　come　about　that　benefits　so　great　and　manifold　were　supposed　to　be　attained　by　means　so　simple？　In　what　way　did　people　imagine　that　they　could　procure　so　many　goods　or　avoid　so　many　ills　by　the　application　of　fire　and　smoke；　of　embers　and　ashes？　Two　different　explanations　of　the　fire…festivals　have　been　given　by　modern　enquirers。　On　the　one　hand　it　has　been　held　that　they　are　sun…charms　or　magical　ceremonies　intended；　on　the　principle　of　imitative　magic；　to　ensure　a　needful　supply　of　sunshine　for　men；　animals；　and　plants　by　kindling　fires　which　mimic　on　earth　the　great　source　of　light　and　heat　in　the　sky。　This　was　the　view　of　Wilhelm　Mannhardt。　It　may　be　called　the　solar　theory。　On　the　other　hand　it　has　been　maintained　that　the　ceremonial　fires　have　no　necessary　reference　to　the　sun　but　are　simply　purificatory　in　intention；　being　designed　to　burn　up　and　destroy　all　harmful　influences；　whether　these　are　conceived　in　a　personal　form　as　witches；　demons；　and　monsters；　or　in　an　impersonal　form　as　a　sort　of　pervading　taint　or　corruption　of　the　air。　This　is　the　view　of　Dr。　Edward　Westermarck　and　apparently　of　Professor　Eugen　Mogk。　It　may　be　called　the　purificatory　theory。　Obviously　the　two　theories　postulate　two　very　different　conceptions　of　the　fire　which　plays　the　principal　part　in　the　rites。　On　the　one　view；　the　fire；　like　sunshine　in　our　latitude；　is　a　genial　creative　power　which　fosters　the　growth　of　plants　and　the　development　of　all　that　makes　for　health　and　happiness；　on　the　other　view；　the　fire　is　a　fierce　destructive　power　which　blasts　and　consumes　all　the　noxious　elements；　whether　spiritual　or　material；　that　menace　the　life　of　men；　of　animals；　and　of　plants。　According　to　the　one　theory　the　fire　is　a　stimulant；　according　to　the　other　it　is　a　disinfectant；　on　the　one　view　its　virtue　is　positive；　on　the　other　it　is　negative。

Yet　the　two　explanations；　different　as　they　are　in　the　character　which　they　attribute　to　the　fire；　are　perhaps　not　wholly　irreconcilable。　If　we　assume　that　the　fires　kindled　at　these　festivals　were　primarily　intended　to　imitate　the　sun's　light　and　heat；　may　we　not　regard　the　purificatory　and　disinfecting　qualities；　which　popular　opinion　certainly　appears　to　have　ascribed　to　them；　as　attributes　derived　directly　from　the　purificatory　and　disinfecting　qualities　of　sunshine？　In　this　way　we　might　conclude　that；　while　the　imitation　of　sunshine　in　these　ceremonies　was　primary　and　original；　the　purification　attributed　to　them　was　secondary　and　derivative。　Such　a　conclusion；　occupying　an　intermediate　position　between　the　two　opposing　theories　and　recognising　an　element　of　truth　in　both　of　them；　was　adopted　by　me　in　earlier　editions　of　this　work；　but　in　the　meantime　Dr。　Westermarck　has　argued　powerfully　in　favour　of　the　purificatory　theory　alone；　and　I　am　bound　to　say　that　his　arguments　carry　great　weight；　and　that　on　a　fuller　review　of　the　facts　the　balance　of　evidence　seems　to　me　to　incline　decidedly　in　his　favour。　However；　the　case　is　not　so　clear　as　to　justify　us　in　dismissing　the　solar　theory　without　discussion；　and　accordingly　I　propose　to　adduce　the　considerations　which　tell　for　it　before　proceeding　to　notice　those　which　tell　against　it。　A　theory　which　had　the　support　of　so　learned　and　sagacious　an　investigator　as　W。　Mannhardt　is　entitled　to　a　respectful　hearing。

Chapter　63。　The　Interpretation　of　the　Fire…Festivals。

2。　The　Solar　Theory　ofthe　Fire…festivals　IN　AN　EARLIER　part　of　this　work　we　saw　that　savages　resort　to　charms　for　making　sunshine；　and　it　would　be　no　wonder　if　primitive　man　in　Europe　did　the　same。　Indeed；　when　we　consider　the　cold　and　cloudy　climate　of　Europe　during　a　great　part　of　the　year；　we　shall　find　it　natural　that　sun…charms　should　have　played　a　much　more　prominent　part　among　the　superstitious　practices　of　European　peoples　than　among　those　of　savages　who　live　nearer　the　equator　and　who　consequently　are　apt　to　get　in　the　course　of　nature　more　sunshine　than　they　want。　This　view　of　the　festivals　may　be　supported　by　various　arguments　drawn　partly　from　their　dates；　partly　from　the　nature　of　the　rites；　and　partly　from　the　influence　which　they　are　believed　to　exert　upon　the　weather　and　on　vegetation。

First；　in　regard　to　the　dates　of　the　festivals　it　can　be　no　mere　accident　that　two　of　the　most　important　and　widely　spread　of　the　festivals　are　timed　to　coincide　more　or　less　exactly　with　the　summer　and　winter　solstices；　that　is；　with　the　two　turning…points　in　the　sun's　apparent　course　in　the　sky　when　he　reaches　respectively　his　highest　and　his　lowest　elevation　at　noon。　Indeed　with　respect　to　the　midwinter　celebration　of　Christmas　we　are　not　left　to　conjecture；　we　know　from　the　express　testimony　of　the　ancients　that　it　was　instituted　by　the　church　to　supersede　an　old　heathen　festival　of　the　birth　of　the　sun；　which　was　apparently　conceived　to　be　born　again　on　the　shortest　day　of　the　year；　after　which　his　light　and　heat　were　seen　to　grow　till　they　attained　their　full　maturity　at　midsummer。　Therefore　it　is　no　very　far…fetched　conjecture　to　suppose　that　the　Yule　log；　which　figures　so　prominently　in　the　popular　celebration　of　Christmas；　was　originally　designed　to　help　the　labouring　sun　of　midwinter　to　rekindle　his　seemingly　expiring　light。

Not　only　the　date　of　some　of　the　festivals　but　the　manner　of　their　celebration　suggests　a　conscious　imitation　of　the　sun。　The　custom　of　rolling　a　burning　wheel　down　a　hill；　which　is　often　observed　at　these　ceremonies；　might　well　pass　for　an　imitation　of　the　sun's　course　in　the　sky；　and　the　imitation　would　be　especially　appropriate　on　Midsummer　Day　when　the　sun's　annual　declension　begins。　Indeed　the　custom　has　been　thus　interpreted　by　some　of　those　who　have　recorded　it。　Not　less　graphic；　it　may　be　said；　is　the　mimicry　of　his　apparent　revolution　by　swinging　a　burning　tar…barrel　round　a　pole。　Again；　the　common　practice　of　throwing　fiery　discs；　sometimes　expressly　said　to　be　shaped　like　suns；　into　the　air　at　the　festivals　may　well　be　a　piece　of　imitative　magic。　In　these；　as　in　so　many　cases；　the　magic　force　may　be　supposed　to　take　effect　through　mimicry　or　sympathy：　by　imitating　the　desired　result　you　actually　produce　it：　by　counterfeiting　the　sun's　progress　through　the　heavens　you　really　help　the　luminary　to　pursue　his　celestial　journey　with　punctuality　and　despatch。　The　name　fire　of　heaven；　by　which　the　midsummer　fire　is　sometimes　popularly　known；　clearly　implies　a　consciousness　of　a　connexion　between　the　earthly　and　the　heavenly　flame。

Again；　the　manner　in　which　the　fire　appears　to　have　been　originally　kindled　on　these　occasions　has　been　alleged　in　support　of　the　view　that　it　was　intended　to　be　a　mock…sun。　As　some　scholars　have　perceived；　it　is　highly　probable　that　at　the　periodic　festivals　in　former　times　fire　was　universally　obtained　by　the　friction　of　two　pieces　of　wood。　It　is　still　so　procured　in　some　places　both　at　the　Easter　and　the　Midsummer　festivals；　and　it　is　expressly　said　to　have　been　formerly　so　procured　at　the　Beltane　celebration　both　in　Scotland　and　Wales。　But　what　makes　it　nearly　certain　that　this　was　once　the　invariable　mode　of　kindling　the　fire　at　these　periodic　festivals　is　the　analogy　of　the　needfire；　which　has　almost　always　been　produced　by　the　friction　of　wood；　and　sometimes　by　the　revolution　of　a　wheel。　It　is　a　plausible　conjecture　that　the　wheel　employed　for　this　purpose　represents　the　sun；　and　if　the　fires　at　the　regularly　recurring　celebrations　were　formerly　produced　in　the　same　way；　it　might　be　regarded　as　a　confirmation　of　the　view　that　they　were　originally　sun…charms。　In　point　of　fact　there　is；　as　Kuhn　has　indicated；　some　evidence　to　show　that　the　midsummer　fire　was　originally　thus　produced。　We　have　seen　that　many　Hungarian　swine…herds　make　fire　on　Midsummer　Eve　by　rotating　a　wheel　round　a　wooden　axle　wrapt　in　hemp；　and　that　they　drive　their　pigs　through　the　fire　thus　made。　At　Obermedlingen；　in　Swabia；　the　fire　of　heaven；　as　it　was　called；　was　made　on　St。　Vitus's　Day　（the　fifteenth　of　June）　by　igniting　a　cart…wheel；　which；　smeared　with　pitch　and　plaited　with　straw；　was　fastened　on　a　pole　twelve　feet　high；　the　top　of　the　pole　being　inserted　in　the　nave　of　the　wheel。　This　fire　was　made　on　the　summit　of　a　mountain；　and　as　the　flame　ascended；　the　people　uttered　a　set　form　of　words；　with　eyes　and　arms　directed　heavenward。　Here　the　fixing　of　a　wheel　on　a　pole　and　igniting　it　suggests　that　originally　the　fire　was　produced；　as　in　the　case　of　the　need…fire；　by　the　revolution　of　a　wheel。　The　day　on　which　the　ceremony　takes　place　（the　fifteenth　of　June）　is　near　midsummer；　and　we　have　seen　that　in　Masuren　fire　is；　or　used　to　be；　actually　made　on　Midsummer　Day　by　turning　a　wheel　rapidly　about　an　oaken　pole；　though　it　is　not　said　that　the　new　fire　so　obtained　is　used　to　light　a　bonfire。　However；　we　must　bear　in　mind　that　in　all　such　cases　the　use　of　a　wheel　may　be　merely　a　mechanical　device　to　facilitate　the　operation　of　fire…making　by　increasing　the　friction；　it　need　not　have　any　symbolical　significance。

Further；　the　influence　which　these　fires；　wheth