the golden bough-第197节

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s　fruit…trees　and　his　copses；　it　was　to　Mars　that　the　priestly　college　of　the　Arval　Brothers；　whose　business　it　was　to　sacrifice　for　the　growth　of　the　crops；　addressed　their　petitions　almost　exclusively；　and　it　was　to　Mars；　as　we　saw；　that　a　horse　was　sacrificed　in　October　to　secure　an　abundant　harvest。　Moreover；　it　was　to　Mars；　under　his　title　of　Mars　of　the　woods　（Mars　Silvanus）；　that　farmers　offered　sacrifice　for　the　welfare　of　their　cattle。　We　have　already　seen　that　cattle　are　commonly　supposed　to　be　under　the　special　patronage　of　tree…gods。　Once　more；　the　consecration　of　the　vernal　month　of　March　to　Mars　seems　to　point　him　out　as　the　deity　of　the　sprouting　vegetation。　Thus　the　Roman　custom　of　expelling　the　old　Mars　at　the　beginning　of　the　new　year　in　spring　is　identical　with　the　Slavonic　custom　of　carrying　out　Death；　if　the　view　here　taken　of　the　latter　custom　is　correct。　The　similarity　of　the　Roman　and　Slavonic　customs　has　been　already　remarked　by　scholars；　who　appear；　however；　to　have　taken　Mamurius　Veturius　and　the　corresponding　figures　in　the　Slavonic　ceremonies　to　be　representatives　of　the　old　year　rather　than　of　the　old　god　of　vegetation。　It　is　possible　that　ceremonies　of　this　kind　may　have　come　to　be　thus　interpreted　in　later　times　even　by　the　people　who　practised　them。　But　the　personification　of　a　period　of　time　is　too　abstract　an　idea　to　be　primitive。　However；　in　the　Roman；　as　in　the　Slavonic；　ceremony；　the　representative　of　the　god　appears　to　have　been　treated　not　only　as　a　deity　of　vegetation　but　also　as　a　scapegoat。　His　expulsion　implies　this；　for　there　is　no　reason　why　the　god　of　vegetation；　as　such；　should　be　expelled　the　city。　But　it　is　otherwise　if　he　is　also　a　scapegoat；　it　then　becomes　necessary　to　drive　him　beyond　the　boundaries；　that　he　may　carry　his　sorrowful　burden　away　to　other　lands。　And；　in　fact；　Mamurius　Veturius　appears　to　have　been　driven　away　to　the　land　of　the　Oscans；　the　enemies　of　Rome。

2。　The　Human　Scapegoat　in　Ancient　Greece

THE　ANCIENT　Greeks　were　also　familiar　with　the　use　of　a　human　scapegoat。　In　Plutarch's　native　town　of　Chaeronea　a　ceremony　of　this　kind　was　performed　by　the　chief　magistrate　at　the　Town　Hall；　and　by　each　householder　at　his　own　home。　It　was　called　the　expulsion　of　hunger。　A　slave　was　beaten　with　rods　of　the　agnus　castus；　and　turned　out　of　doors　with　the　words；　Out　with　hunger；　and　in　with　wealth　and　health。　When　Plutarch　held　the　office　of　chief　magistrate　of　his　native　town　he　performed　this　ceremony　at　the　Town　Hall；　and　he　has　recorded　the　discussion　to　which　the　custom　afterwards　gave　rise。

But　in　civilised　Greece　the　custom　of　the　scapegoat　took　darker　forms　than　the　innocent　rite　over　which　the　amiable　and　pious　Plutarch　presided。　Whenever　Marseilles；　one　of　the　busiest　and　most　brilliant　of　Greek　colonies；　was　ravaged　by　a　plague；　a　man　of　the　poorer　classes　used　to　offer　himself　as　a　scapegoat。　For　a　whole　year　he　was　maintained　at　the　public　expense；　being　fed　on　choice　and　pure　food。　At　the　expiry　of　the　year　he　was　dressed　in　sacred　garments；　decked　with　holy　branches；　and　led　through　the　whole　city；　while　prayers　were　uttered　that　all　the　evils　of　the　people　might　fall　on　his　head。　He　was　then　cast　out　of　the　city　or　stoned　to　death　by　the　people　outside　of　the　walls。　The　Athenians　regularly　maintained　a　number　of　degraded　and　useless　beings　at　the　public　expense；　and　when　any　calamity；　such　as　plague；　drought；　or　famine；　befell　the　city；　they　sacrificed　two　of　these　outcast　scapegoats。　One　of　the　victims　was　sacrificed　for　the　men　and　the　other　for　the　women。　The　former　wore　round　his　neck　a　string　of　black；　the　latter　a　string　of　white　figs。　Sometimes；　it　seems；　the　victim　slain　on　behalf　of　the　women　was　a　woman。　They　were　led　about　the　city　and　then　sacrificed；　apparently　by　being　stoned　to　death　outside　the　city。　But　such　sacrifices　were　not　confined　to　extraordinary　occasions　of　public　calamity；　it　appears　that　every　year；　at　the　festival　of　the　Thargelia　in　May；　two　victims；　one　for　the　men　and　one　for　the　women；　were　led　out　of　Athens　and　stoned　to　death。　The　city　of　Abdera　in　Thrace　was　publicly　purified　once　a　year；　and　one　of　the　burghers；　set　apart　for　the　purpose；　was　stoned　to　death　as　a　scapegoat　or　vicarious　sacrifice　for　the　life　of　all　the　others；　six　days　before　his　execution　he　was　excommunicated；　in　order　that　he　alone　might　bear　the　sins　of　all　the　people。

From　the　Lover's　Leap；　a　white　bluff　at　the　southern　end　of　their　island；　the　Leucadians　used　annually　to　hurl　a　criminal　into　the　sea　as　a　scapegoat。　But　to　lighten　his　fall　they　fastened　live　birds　and　feathers　to　him；　and　a　flotilla　of　small　boats　waited　below　to　catch　him　and　convey　him　beyond　the　boundary。　Probably　these　humane　precautions　were　a　mitigation　of　an　earlier　custom　of　flinging　the　scapegoat　into　the　sea　to　drown。　The　Leucadian　ceremony　took　place　at　the　time　of　a　sacrifice　to　Apollo；　who　had　a　temple　or　sanctuary　on　the　spot。　Elsewhere　it　was　customary　to　cast　a　young　man　every　year　into　the　sea；　with　the　prayer；　Be　thou　our　offscouring。　This　ceremony　was　supposed　to　rid　the　people　of　the　evils　by　which　they　were　beset；　or　according　to　a　somewhat　different　interpretation　it　redeemed　them　by　paying　the　debt　they　owed　to　the　sea…god。　As　practised　by　the　Greeks　of　Asia　Minor　in　the　sixth　century　before　our　era；　the　custom　of　the　scapegoat　was　as　follows。　When　a　city　suffered　from　plague；　famine；　or　other　public　calamity；　an　ugly　or　deformed　person　was　chosen　to　take　upon　himself　all　the　evils　which　afflicted　the　community。　He　was　brought　to　a　suitable　place；　where　dried　figs；　a　barley　loaf；　and　cheese　were　put　into　his　hand。　These　he　ate。　Then　he　was　beaten　seven　times　upon　his　genital　organs　with　squills　and　branches　of　the　wild　fig　and　other　wild　trees；　while　the　flutes　played　a　particular　tune。　Afterwards　he　was　burned　on　a　pyre　built　of　the　wood　of　forest　trees；　and　his　ashes　were　cast　into　the　sea。　A　similar　custom　appears　to　have　been　annually　celebrated　by　the　Asiatic　Greeks　at　the　harvest　festival　of　the　Thargelia。

In　the　ritual　just　described　the　scourging　of　the　victim　with　squills；　branches　of　the　wild　fig；　and　so　forth；　cannot　have　been　intended　to　aggravate　his　sufferings；　otherwise　any　stick　would　have　been　good　enough　to　beat　him　with。　The　true　meaning　of　this　part　of　the　ceremony　has　been　explained　by　W。　Mannhardt。　He　points　out　that　the　ancients　attributed　to　squills　a　magical　power　of　averting　evil　influences；　and　that　accordingly　they　hung　them　up　at　the　doors　of　their　houses　and　made　use　of　them　in　purificatory　rites。　Hence　the　Arcadian　custom　of　whipping　the　image　of　Pan　with　squills　at　a　festival；　or　whenever　the　hunters　returned　empty…handed；　must　have　been　meant；　not　to　punish　the　god；　but　to　purify　him　from　the　harmful　influences　which　were　impeding　him　in　the　exercise　of　his　divine　functions　as　a　god　who　should　supply　the　hunter　with　game。　Similarly　the　object　of　beating　the　human　scapegoat　on　the　genital　organs　with　squills　and　so　on；　must　have　been　to　release　his　reproductive　energies　from　any　restraint　or　spell　under　which　they　might　be　laid　by　demoniacal　or　other　malignant　agency；　and　as　the　Thargelia　at　which　he　was　annually　sacrificed　was　an　early　harvest　festival　celebrated　in　May；　we　must　recognise　in　him　a　representative　of　the　creative　and　fertilising　god　of　vegetation。　The　representative　of　the　god　was　annually　slain　for　the　purpose　I　have　indicated；　that　of　maintaining　the　divine　life　in　perpetual　vigour；　untainted　by　the　weakness　of　age；　and　before　he　was　put　to　death　it　was　not　unnatural　to　stimulate　his　reproductive　powers　in　order　that　these　might　be　transmitted　in　full　activity　to　his　successor；　the　new　god　or　new　embodiment　of　the　old　god；　who　was　doubtless　supposed　immediately　to　take　the　place　of　the　one　slain。　Similar　reasoning　would　lead　to　a　similar　treatment　of　the　scapegoat　on　special　occasions；　such　as　drought　or　famine。　If　the　crops　did　not　answer　to　the　expectation　of　the　husbandman；　this　would　be　attributed　to　some　failure　in　the　generative　powers　of　the　god　whose　function　it　was　to　produce　the　fruits　of　the　earth。　It　might　be　thought　that　he　was　under　a　spell　or　was　growing　old　and　feeble。　Accordingly　he　was　slain　in　the　person　of　his　representative；　with　all　the　ceremonies　already　described；　in　order　that；　born　young　again；　he　might　infuse　his　own　youthful　vigour　into　the　stagnant　energies　of　nature。　On　the　same　principle　we　can　understand　why　Mamurius　Veturius　was　beaten　with　rods；　why　the　slave　at　the　Chaeronean　ceremony　was　beaten　with　the　agnus　castus　（a　tree　to　which　magical　properties　were　ascribed）；　why　the　effigy　of　Death　in　some　parts　of　Europe　is　assailed　with　sticks　and　stones；　and　why　at　Babylon　the　criminal　who　played　the　god　scourged　before　he　was　crucified。　The　purpose　of　the　scourging　was　not　to　intensify　the　agony　of　the　divine　sufferer；　but　on　the　contrary　to　dispel　any　malignant　influences　by　which　at　the　supreme　moment　he　might　conceivably　be　beset。

Thus　far　I　have　assumed　that　the　human　victims　at　the　Thargelia　represented　the　spirits　of　vegetation　in　general；　but　it　has　been　well　remarked　by　Mr。　W。　R。　Paton　that　these　poor　wretches　seem　to　have　masqueraded　as　the　spirits　of　fig…trees　i