the golden bough-第158节

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　their　theory　covers　the　former　identification　also。

Chapter　49。　Ancient　Deities　of　Vegetation　as　Animals。

1。　Dionysus；　the　Goat　and　the　Bull。

HOWEVER　we　may　explain　it；　the　fact　remains　that　in　peasant　folk…lore　the　corn…spirit　is　very　commonly　conceived　and　represented　in　animal　form。　May　not　this　fact　explain　the　relation　in　which　certain　animals　stood　to　the　ancient　deities　of　vegetation；　Dionysus；　Demeter；　Adonis；　Attis；　and　Osiris？

To　begin　with　Dionysus。　We　have　seen　that　he　was　represented　sometimes　as　a　goat　and　sometimes　as　a　bull。　As　a　goat　he　can　hardly　be　separated　from　the　minor　divinities；　the　Pans；　Satyrs；　and　Silenuses；　all　of　whom　are　closely　associated　with　him　and　are　represented　more　or　less　completely　in　the　form　of　goats。　Thus；　Pan　was　regularly　portrayed　in　sculpture　and　painting　with　the　face　and　legs　of　a　goat。　The　Satyrs　were　depicted　with　pointed　goat…ears；　and　sometimes　with　sprouting　horns　and　short　tails。　They　were　sometimes　spoken　of　simply　as　goats；　and　in　the　drama　their　parts　were　played　by　men　dressed　in　goatskins。　Silenus　is　represented　in　art　clad　in　a　goatskin。　Further；　the　Fauns；　the　Italian　counterpart　of　the　Greek　Pans　and　Satyrs；　are　described　as　being　half　goats；　with　goat…feet　and　goat…horns。　Again；　all　these　minor　goat…formed　divinities　partake　more　or　less　clearly　of　the　character　of　woodland　deities。　Thus；　Pan　was　called　by　the　Arcadians　the　Lord　of　the　Wood。　The　Silenuses　kept　company　with　the　tree…nymphs。　The　Fauns　are　expressly　designated　as　woodland　deities；　and　their　character　as　such　is　still　further　brought　out　by　their　association；　or　even　identification；　with　Silvanus　and　the　Silvanuses；　who；　as　their　name　of　itself　indicates；　are　spirits　of　the　woods。　Lastly；　the　association　of　the　Satyrs　with　the　Silenuses；　Fauns；　and　Silvanuses；　proves　that　the　Satyrs　also　were　woodland　deities。　These　goat…formed　spirits　of　the　woods　have　their　counterparts　in　the　folk…lore　of　Northern　Europe。　Thus；　the　Russian　wood…spirits；　called　Ljeschie　（from　ljes；　wood）；　are　believed　to　appear　partly　in　human　shape；　but　with　the　horns；　ears；　and　legs　of　goats。　The　Ljeschi　can　alter　his　stature　at　pleasure；　when　he　walks　in　the　wood　he　is　as　tall　as　the　trees；　when　he　walks　in　the　meadows　he　is　no　higher　than　the　grass。　Some　of　the　Ljeschie　are　spirits　of　the　corn　as　well　as　of　the　wood；　before　harvest　they　are　as　tall　as　the　corn…stalks；　but　after　it　they　shrink　to　the　height　of　the　stubble。　This　brings　outwhat　we　have　remarked　beforethe　close　connexion　between　tree…spirits　and　corn…spirits；　and　shows　how　easily　the　former　may　melt　into　the　latter。　Similarly　the　Fauns；　though　wood…spirits；　were　believed　to　foster　the　growth　of　the　crops。　We　have　already　seen　how　often　the　corn…spirit　is　represented　in　folk…custom　as　a　goat。　On　the　whole；　then；　as　Mannhardt　argues；　the　Pans；　Satyrs；　and　Fauns　perhaps　belong　to　a　widely　diffused　class　of　wood…spirits　conceived　in　goat…form。　The　fondness　of　goats　for　straying　in　woods　and　nibbling　the　bark　of　trees；　to　which　indeed　they　are　most　destructive；　is　an　obvious　and　perhaps　sufficient　reason　why　wood…spirits　should　so　often　be　supposed　to　take　the　form　of　goats。　The　inconsistency　of　a　god　of　vegetation　subsisting　upon　the　vegetation　which　he　personifies　is　not　one　to　strike　the　primitive　mind。　Such　inconsistencies　arise　when　the　deity；　ceasing　to　be　immanent　in　the　vegetation；　comes　to　be　regarded　as　its　owner　or　lord；　for　the　idea　of　owning　the　vegetation　naturally　leads　to　that　of　subsisting　on　it。　Sometimes　the　corn…spirit；　originally　conceived　as　immanent　in　the　corn；　afterwards　comes　to　be　regarded　as　its　owner；　who　lives　on　it　and　is　reduced　to　poverty　and　want　by　being　deprived　of　it。　Hence　he　is　often　known　as　the　Poor　Man　or　the　Poor　Woman。　Occasionally　the　last　sheaf　is　left　standing　on　the　field　for　the　Poor　Old　Woman　or　for　the　Old　Rye…woman。

Thus　the　representation　of　wood…spirits　in　the　form　of　goats　appears　to　be　both　widespread　and；　to　the　primitive　mind；　natural。　Therefore　when　we　find；　as　we　have　done；　that　Dionysusa　tree…godis　sometimes　represented　in　goat…form；　we　can　hardly　avoid　concluding　that　this　representation　is　simply　a　part　of　his　proper　character　as　a　tree…god　and　is　not　to　be　explained　by　the　fusion　of　two　distinct　and　independent　worships；　in　one　of　which　he　originally　appeared　as　a　tree…god　and　in　the　other　as　a　goat。

Dionysus　was　also　figured；　as　we　have　seen；　in　the　shape　of　a　bull。　After　what　has　gone　before　we　are　naturally　led　to　expect　that　his　bull　form　must　have　been　only　another　expression　for　his　character　as　a　deity　of　vegetation；　especially　as　the　bull　is　a　common　embodiment　of　the　corn…spirit　in　Northern　Europe；　and　the　close　association　of　Dionysus　with　Demeter　and　Persephone　in　the　mysteries　of　Eleusis　shows　that　he　had　at　least　strong　agricultural　affinities。

The　probability　of　this　view　will　be　somewhat　increased　if　it　can　be　shown　that　in　other　rites　than　those　of　Dionysus　the　ancients　slew　an　OX　as　a　representative　of　the　spirit　of　vegetation。　This　they　appear　to　have　done　in　the　Athenian　sacrifice　known　as　the　murder　of　the　OX　（bouphonia）。　It　took　place　about　the　end　of　June　or　beginning　of　July；　that　is；　about　the　time　when　the　threshing　is　nearly　over　in　Attica。　According　to　tradition　the　sacrifice　was　instituted　to　procure　a　cessation　of　drought　and　dearth　which　had　afflicted　the　land。　The　ritual　was　as　follows。　Barley　mixed　with　wheat；　or　cakes　made　of　them；　were　laid　upon　the　bronze　altar　of　Zeus　Polieus　on　the　Acropolis。　Oxen　were　driven　round　the　altar；　and　the　OX　which　went　up　to　the　altar　and　ate　the　offering　on　it　was　sacrificed。　The　axe　and　knife　with　which　the　beast　was　slain　had　been　previously　wetted　with　water　brought　by　maidens　called　water…carriers。　The　weapons　were　then　sharpened　and　handed　to　the　butchers；　one　of　whom　felled　the　OX　with　the　axe　and　another　cut　its　throat　with　the　knife。　As　soon　as　he　had　felled　the　OX；　the　former　threw　the　axe　from　him　and　fled；　and　the　man　who　cut　the　beast's　throat　apparently　imitated　his

example。　Meantime　the　OX　was　skinned　and　all　present　partook　of　its　flesh。　Then　the　hide　was　stuffed　with　straw　and　sewed　up；　next　the　stuffed　animal　was　set　on　its　feet　and　yoked　to　a　plough　as　if　it　were　ploughing。　A　trial　then　took　place　in　an　ancient　law…court　presided　over　by　the　King　（as　he　was　called）　to　determine　who　had　murdered　the　OX。　The　maidens　who　had　brought　the　water　accused　the　men　who　had　sharpened　the　axe　and　knife；　the　men　who　had　sharpened　the　axe　and　knife　blamed　the　men　who　had　handed　these　implements　to　the　butchers；　the　men　who　had　handed　the　implements　to　the　butchers　blamed　the　butchers；　and　the　butchers　laid　the　blame　on　the　axe　and　knife；　which　were　accordingly　found　guilty；　condemned；　and　cast　into　the　sea。

The　name　of　this　sacrifice；　the　murder　of　the　OX；the　pains　taken　by　each　person　who　had　a　hand　in　the　slaughter　to　lay　the　blame　on　some　one　else；　together　with　the　formal　trial　and　punishment　of　the　axe　or　knife　or　both；　prove　that　the　OX　was　here　regarded　not　merely　as　a　victim　offered　to　a　god；　but　as　itself　a　sacred　creature；　the　slaughter　of　which　was　sacrilege　or　murder。　This　is　borne　out　by　a　statement　of　Varro　that　to　kill　an　OX　was　formerly　a　capital　crime　in　Attica。　The　mode　of　selecting　the　victim　suggests　that　the　OX　which　tasted　the　corn　was　viewed　as　the　corn…deity　taking　possession　of　his　own。　This　interpretation　is　supported　by　the　following　custom。　In　Beauce；　in　the　district　of　Orleans；　on　the　twenty…fourth　or　twenty…fifth　of　April　they　make　a　straw　man　called　the　great　mondard。　For　they　say　that　the　old　mondard　is　now　dead　and　it　is　necessary　to　make　a　new　one。　The　straw　man　is　carried　in　solemn　procession　up　and　down　the　village　and　at　last　is　placed　upon　the　oldest　apple…tree。　There　he　remains　till　the　apples　are　gathered；　when　he　is　taken　down　and　thrown　into　the　water；　or　he　is　burned　and　his　ashes　cast　into　water。　But　the　person　who　plucks　the　first　fruit　from　the　tree　succeeds　to　the　title　of　the　great　mondard。　Here　the　straw　figure；　called　the　great　mondard　and　placed　on　the　oldest　apple…tree　in　spring；　represents　the　spirit　of　the　tree；　who；　dead　in　winter；　revives　when　the　apple…blossoms　appear　on　the　boughs。　Thus　the　person　who　plucks　the　first　fruit　from　the　tree　and　thereby　receives　the　name　of　the　great　mondard　must　be　regarded　as　a　representative　of　the　tree…spirit。　Primitive　peoples　are　usually　reluctant　to　taste　the　annual　first…fruits　of　any　crop；　until　some　ceremony　has　been　performed　which　makes　it　safe　and　pious　for　them　to　do　so。　The　reason　of　this　reluctance　appears　to　be　a　belief　that　the　first…fruits　either　belong　to　or　actually　contain　a　divinity。　Therefore　when　a　man　or　animal　is　seen　boldly　to　appropriate　the　sacred　first…fruits；　he　or　it　is　naturally　regarded　as　the　divinity　himself　in　human　or　animal　form　taking　possession　of　his　own。　The　time　of　the　Athenian　sacrifice；　which　fell　about　the　close　of　the　threshing；　suggests　that　the　wheat　and　barley　laid　upon　the　altar　were　a　harvest　offering；　and　the　sacramental　character　of　the　subsequent　repastall　partaking　of　the　flesh　of　the　divine　animalwould　make　it　parallel　to　the　harvest…suppers　of　modern　Europe；　in　which；　as　we　ha