utilitarianism-第4节
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ause； in the first place； it is unattainable： and they contemptuously ask； what right hast thou to be happy？ a question which Mr。 Carlyle clenches by the addition； What right； a short time ago； hadst thou even to be？ Next； they say； that men can do without happiness； that all noble human beings have felt this； and could not have become noble but by learning the lesson of Entsagen； or renunciation； which lesson； thoroughly learnt and submitted to； they affirm to be the beginning and necessary condition of all virtue。 The first of these objections would go to the root of the matter were it well founded； for if no happiness is to be had at all by human beings； the attainment of it cannot be the end of morality； or of any rational conduct。 Though； even in that case； something might still be said for the utilitarian theory； since utility includes not solely the pursuit of happiness； but the prevention or mitigation of unhappiness； and if the former aim be chimerical； there will be all the greater scope and more imperative need for the latter； so long at least as mankind think fit to live； and do not take refuge in the simultaneous act of suicide recommended under certain conditions by Novalis。 When； however； it is thus positively asserted to be impossible that human life should be happy； the assertion； if not something like a verbal quibble； is at least an exaggeration。 If by happiness be meant a continuity of highly pleasurable excitement； it is evident enough that this is impossible。 A state of exalted pleasure lasts only moments； or in some cases； and with some intermissions； hours or days； and is the occasional brilliant flash of enjoyment； not its permanent and steady flame。 Of this the philosophers who have taught that happiness is the end of life were as fully aware as those who taunt them。 The happiness which they meant was not a life of rapture； but moments of such； in an existence made up of few and transitory pains； many and various pleasures； with a decided predominance of the active over the passive； and having as the foundation of the whole； not to expect more from life than it is capable of bestowing。 A life thus composed； to those who have been fortunate enough to obtain it； has always appeared worthy of the name of happiness。 And such an existence is even now the lot of many； during some considerable portion of their lives。 The present wretched education； and wretched social arrangements； are the only real hindrance to its being attainable by almost all。 The objectors perhaps may doubt whether human beings； if taught to consider happiness as the end of life； would be satisfied with such a moderate share of it。 But great numbers of mankind have been satisfied with much less。 The main constituents of a satisfied life appear to be two； either of which by itself is often found sufficient for the purpose： tranquillity； and excitement。 With much tranquillity； many find that they can be content with very little pleasure： with much excitement； many can reconcile themselves to a considerable quantity of pain。 There is assuredly no inherent impossibility in enabling even the mass of mankind to unite both； since the two are so far from being incompatible that they are in natural alliance； the prolongation of either being a preparation for； and exciting a wish for； the other。 It is only those in whom indolence amounts to a vice； that do not desire excitement after an interval of repose： it is only those in whom the need of excitement is a disease； that feel the tranquillity which follows excitement dull and insipid； instead of pleasurable in direct proportion to the excitement which preceded it。 When people who are tolerably fortunate in their outward lot do not find in life sufficient enjoyment to make it valuable to them； the cause generally is； caring for nobody but themselves。 To those who have neither public nor private affections； the excitements of life are much curtailed； and in any case dwindle in value as the time approaches when all selfish interests must be terminated by death： while those who leave after them objects of personal affection； and especially those who have also cultivated a fellow…feeling with the collective interests of mankind； retain as lively an interest in life on the eve of death as in the vigour of youth and health。 Next to selfishness； the principal cause which makes life unsatisfactory is want of mental cultivation。 A cultivated mind… I do not mean that of a philosopher； but any mind to which the fountains of knowledge have been opened； and which has been taught； in any tolerable degree； to exercise its faculties… finds sources of inexhaustible interest in all that surrounds it； in the objects of nature； the achievements of art； the imaginations of poetry； the incidents of history； the ways of mankind； past and present； and their prospects in the future。 It is possible； indeed； to become indifferent to all this； and that too without having exhausted a thousandth part of it； but only when one has had from the beginning no moral or human interest in these things； and has sought in them only the gratification of curiosity。 Now there is absolutely no reason in the nature of things why an amount of mental culture sufficient to give an intelligent interest in these objects of contemplation； should not be the inheritance of every one born in a civilised country。 As little is there an inherent necessity that any human being should be a selfish egotist； devoid of every feeling or care but those which centre in his own miserable individuality。 Something far superior to this is sufficiently common even now； to give ample earnest of what the human species may be made。 Genuine private affections and a sincere interest in the public good； are possible； though in unequal degrees； to every rightly brought up human being。 In a world in which there is so much to interest； so much to enjoy； and so much also to correct and improve； every one who has this moderate amount of moral and intellectual requisites is capable of an existence which may be called enviable； and unless such a person； through bad laws； or subjection to the will of others； is denied the liberty to use the sources of happiness within his reach； he will not fail to find this enviable existence； if he escape the positive evils of life； the great sources of physical and mental suffering… such as indigence； disease； and the unkindness； worthlessness； or premature loss of objects of affection。 The main stress of the problem lies； therefore； in the contest with these calamities； from which it is a rare good fortune entirely to escape； which； as things now are； cannot be obviated； and often cannot be in any material degree mitigated。 Yet no one whose opinion deserves a moment's consideration can doubt that most of the great positive evils of the world are in themselves removable； and will； if human affairs continue to improve； be in the end reduced within narrow limits。 Poverty； in any sense implying suffering； may be completely extinguished by the wisdom of society； combined with the good sense and providence of individuals。 Even that most intractable of enemies； disease； may be indefinitely reduced in dimensions by good physical and moral education； and proper control of noxious influences； while the progress of science holds out a promise for the future of still more direct conquests over this detestable foe。 And every advance in that direction relieves us from some； not only of the chances which cut short our own lives； but； what concerns us still more； which deprive us of those in whom our happiness is wrapt up。 As for vicissitudes of fortune； and other disappointments connected with worldly circumstances； these are principally the effect either of gross imprudence； of ill…regulated desires； or of bad or imperfect social institutions。 All the grand sources； in short； of human suffering are in a great degree； many of them almost entirely； conquerable by human care and effort； and though their removal is grievously slow… though a long succession of generations will perish in the breach before the conquest is completed； and this world becomes all that； if will and knowledge were not wanting； it might easily be made… yet every mind sufficiently intelligent and generous to bear a part； however small and unconspicuous； in the endeavour； will draw a noble enjoyment from the contest itself； which he would not for any bribe in the form of selfish indulgence consent to be without。 And this leads to the true estimation of what is said by the objectors concerning the possibility； and the obligation； of learning to do without happiness。 Unquestionably it is possible to do without happiness； it is done involuntarily by nineteen…twentieths of mankind； even in those parts of our present world which are least deep in barbarism； and it often has to be done voluntarily by the hero or the martyr； for the sake of something which he prizes more than his individual happiness。 But this something； what is it； unless the happiness of others or some of the requisites of happiness？ It is noble to be capable of resigning entirely one's own portion of happiness； or chances of it： but； after all； this self…sacrifice must be for some end； it is not its own end； and if we are told
