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part　of　it　in　maintaining　the　body　of　retainers　whom　the　warlike

habits　of　society；　and　the　little　protection　afforded　by

government；　rendered　indispensable　to　their　safety。　The　greater

stability；　the　fixity　of　personal　position；　which　this　state　of

society　afforded；　in　comparison　with　the　Asiatic　polity　to　which

it　economically　corresponded；　was　one　main　reason　why　it　was　also

found　more　favourable　to　improvement。　From　this　time　the

economical　advancement　of　society　has　not　been　further

interrupted。　Security　of　person　and　property　grew　slowly；　but

steadily。　the　arts　of　life　made　constant　progress；　plunder　ceased

to　be　the　principal　source　of　accumulation；　and　feudal　Europe

ripened　into　commercial　and　manufacturing　Europe。　In　the　latter

part　of　the　Middle　Ages；　the　towns　of　Italy　and　Flanders；　the

free　cities　of　Germany；　and　some　towns　of　France　and　England；

contained　a　large　and　energetic　population　of　artisans；　and　many

rich　burghers；　whose　wealth　had　been　acquired　by　manufacturing

industry；　or　by　trading　in　the　produce　of　such　industry。　The

Commons　of　England；　the　Tiers…Etat　of　France；　the　bourgeoisie　of

the　Continent　generally；　are　the　descendants　of　this　class。　As

these　were　a　saving　class；　while　the　posterity　of　the　feudal

aristocracy　were　a　squandering　class；　the　former　by　degrees

substituted　themselves　for　the　latter　as　the　owners　of　a　great

proportion　of　the　land。　This　natural　tendency　was　in　some　cases

retarded　by　laws　contrived　for　the　purpose　of　detaining　the　land

in　the　families　of　its　existing　possessors；　in　other　cases

accelerated　by　political　revolutions。　Gradually；　though　more

slowly；　the　immediate　cultivators　of　the　soil；　in　all　the　more

civilized　countries；　ceased　to　be　in　a　servile　or　semi…servile

state：　though　the　legal　position；　as　well　as　the　economical

condition　attained　by　them；　vary　extremely　in　the　different

nations　of　Europe；　and　in　the　great　communities　which　have　been

founded　beyond　the　Atlantic　by　the　descendants　of　Europeans。

　　　　The　world　now　contains　several　extensive　regions；　provided

with　the　various　ingredients　of　wealth　in　a　degree　of　abundance

of　which　former　ages　had　not　even　the　idea。　Without　compulsory

labour；　an　enormous　mass　of　food　is　annuaLly　extracted　from　the

soil；　and　maintains；　besides　the　actual　producers；　an　equal；

sometimes　a　greater　number　of　labourers；　occupied　in　producing

conveniences　and　luxuries　of　innumerable　kinds；　or　in

transporting　them　from　place　to　place；　also　a　multitude　of

persons　employed　in　directing　and　superintending　these　various

labours；　and　over　and　above　all　these；　a　class　more　numerous　than

in　the　most　luxurious　ancient　societies；　of　persons　whose

occupations　are　of　a　kind　not　directly　productive；　and　of　persons

who　have　no　occupation　at　all。　The　food　thus　raised　supports　a

far　larger　population　than　had　ever　existed　（at　least　in　the　same

regions）　on　an　equal　space　of　ground；　and　supports　them　with

certainty；　exempt　from　those　periodically　recurring　famines　so

abundant　in　the　early　history　of　Europe；　and　in　Oriental

countries　even　now　not　unfrequent。　Besides　this　great　increase　in

the　quantity　of　food；　it　has　greatly　improved　in　quality　and

variety；　while　conveniences　and　luxuries；　other　than　food；　are　no

longer　limited　to　a　small　and　opulent　class；　but　descend；　in

great　abundance；　through　many　widening　strata　in　society。　The

collective　resources　of　one　of　these　communities；　when　it　chooses

to　put　them　forth　for　any　unexpected　purpose；　its　ability　to

maintain　fleets　and　armies；　to　execute　public　works；　either

useful　or　ornamental；　to　perform　national　acts　of　beneficence

like　the　ransom　of　the　West　India　slaves；　to　found　colonies；　to

have　its　people　taught；　to　do　anything　in　short　which　requires

expense；　and　to　do　it　with　no　sacrifice　of　the　necessaries　or

even　the　substantial　comforts　of　its　inhabitants；　are　such　as　the

world　never　saw　before。

　　　　But　in　all　these　particulars；　characteristic　of　the　modern

industrial　communities；　those　communities　differ　widely　from　one

another。　Though　abounding　in　wealth　as　compared　with　former　ages；

they　do　so　in　very　different　degrees。　Even　of　the　countries　which

are　justly　accounted　the　richest；　some　have　made　a　more　complete

use　of　their　productive　resources；　and　have　obtained；　relatively

to　their　territorial　extent；　a　much　larger　produce；　than　others；

nor　do　they　differ　only　in　amount　of　wealth；　but　also　in　the

rapidity　of　its　increase。　The　diversities　in　the　distribution　of

wealth　are　still　greater　than　in　the　production。　There　are　great

differences　in　the　condition　of　the　poorest　class　in　different

countries；　and　in　the　proportional　numbers　and　opulence　of　the

classes　which　are　above　the　poorest。　The　very　nature　and

designation　of　the　classes　who　originally　share　among　them　the

produce　of　the　soil；　vary　not　a　little　in　different　places。　In

some；　the　landowners　are　a　class　in　themselves；　almost　entirely

separate　from　the　classes　engaged　in　industry。　in　others；　the

proprietor　of　the　land　is　almost　universally　its　cultivator；

owning　the　plough；　and　often　himself　holding　it。　Where　the

proprietor　himself　does　not　cultivate；　there　is　sometimes；

between　him　and　the　labourer；　an　intermediate　agency；　that　of　the

farmer；　who　advances　the　subsistence　of　the　labourers；　supplies

the　instruments　of　production；　and　receives；　after　paying　a　rent

to　the　landowner；　all　the　produce：　in　other　cases；　the　landlord；

his　paid　agents；　and　the　labourers；　are　the　only　sharers。

Manufactures；　again；　are　sometimes　carried　on　by　scattered

individuals；　who　own　or　hire　the　tools　or　machinery　they　require；

and　employ　little　labour　besides　that　of　their　own　family；　in

other　cases；　by　large　numbers　working　together　in　one　building；

with　expensive　and　complex　machinery　owned　by　rich　manufacturers。

The　same　difference　exists　in　the　operations　of　trade。　The

wholesale　operations　indeed　are　everywhere　carried　on　by　large

capitals；　where　such　exist；　but　the　retail　dealings；　which

collectively　occupy　a　very　great　amount　of　capital；　are　sometimes

conducted　in　small　shops；　chiefly　by　the　personal　exertions　of

the　dealers　themselves；　with　their　families；　and　perhaps　an

apprentice　or　two；　and　sometimes　in　large　establishments；　of

which　the　funds　are　supplied　by　a　wealthy　individual　or

association；　and　the　agency　is　that　of　numerous　salaried　shopmen

or　shopwomen。　Besides　these　differences　in　the　economical

phenomena　presented　by　different　parts　of　what　is　usually　called

the　civilized　world；　all　those　earlier　states　which　we　previously

passed　in　review；　have　continued　in　some　part　or　other　of　the

world；　down　to　our　own　time。　Hunting　communities　still　exist　in

America；　nomadic　in　Arabia　and　the　steppes　of　Northern　Asia；

Oriental　society　is　in　essentials　what　it　has　always　been；　the

great　empire　of　Russia　is　even　now；　in　many　respects；　the

scarcely　modified　image　of　feudal　Europe。　Every　one　of　the　great

types　of　human　society；　down　to　that　of　the　Esquimaux　or

Patagonians；　is　still　extant。

　　　　These　remarkable　differences　in　the　state　of　different

portions　of　the　human　race；　with　regard　to　the　production　and

distribution　of　wealth；　must；　like　all　other　phenomena；　depend　on

causes。　And　it　is　not　a　sufficient　explanation　to　ascribe　them

exclusively　to　the　degrees　of　knowledge　possessed　at　different

times　and　places；　of　the　laws　of　nature　and　the　physical　arts　of

life。　Many　other　causes　co…operate；　and　that　very　progress　and

unequal　distribution　of　physical　knowledge　are　partly　the

effects；　as　well　as　partly　the　causes；　of　the　state　of　the

production　and　distribution　of　wealth。

　　　　In　so　far　as　the　economical　condition　of　nations　turns　upon

the　state　of　physical　knowledge；　it　is　a　subject　for　the　physical

sciences；　and　the　arts　founded　on　them。　But　in　so　far　as　the

causes　are　moral　or　psychological；　dependent　on　institutions　and

social　relations；　or　on　the　principles　of　human　nature；　their

investigation　belongs　not　to　physical；　but　to　moral　and　social

science；　and　is　the　object　of　what　is　called　Political　Economy。

　　　　The　production　of　wealth；　the　extraction　of　the　instruments

of　human　subsistence　and　enjoyment　from　the　materials　of　the

globe；　is　evidently　not　an　arbitrary　thing。　It　has　its　necessary

conditions。　Of　these；　some　are　physical；　depending　on　the

properties　of　matter；　and　on　the　amount　of　knowledge　of　those

properties　possessed　at　the　particular　place　and　time。　These

Political　Economy　does　not　investigate；　but　assumes；　referring

for　the　grounds；　to　physical　science　or　common　experience。

Combining　with　these　facts　of　outward　nature　other　truths

relating　to　human　nature；　it　attempts　to　trace　the　secondary　or

derivative　laws；　by　which　the　production　of　wealth　is　determined；

in　which　must　lie　the　explanation　of　the　diversities　of　riches

and　poverty　in　the　present　and　past；　and　the　ground　of　whatever

increase　in　wealth　is　reserved　for　the　future。