prel-第4节

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spinning；　weaving；　and　dyeing　woollen　garments；　in　the

preparation　of　leather；　and　in　what　appears　a　still　more

difficult　invention；　that　of　working　in　metals。　Even　speculative

science　took　its　first　beginnings　from　the　leisure　characteristic

of　this　stage　of　social　progress。　The　earliest　astronomical

observations　are　attributed；　by　a　tradition　which　has　much

appearance　of　truth；　to　the　shepherds　of　Chaldea。

　　　　From　this　state　of　society　to　the　agricultural　the　transition

is　not　indeed　easy　（for　no　great　change　in　the　habits　of　mankind

is　otherwise　than　difficult；　and　in　general　either　painful　or

very　slow）；　but　it　lies　in　what　may　be　called　the　spontaneous

corse　of　events。　The　growth　of　the　population　of　men　and　cattle

began　in　time　to　press　upon　the　earth's　capabilities　of　yielding

natural　pasture：　and　this　cause　doubtless　produced　the　first

tilling　of　the　ground；　just　as　at　a　later　period　the　same　cause

made　the　superfluous　hordes　of　the　nations　which　had　remained

nomad　precipitate　themselves　upon　those　which　had　already　become

agricultural；　until；　these　having　become　sufficiently　powerful　to

repel　such　inroads；　the　invading　nations；　deprived　of　this

outlet；　were　obliged　also　to　become　agricultural　communities。

　　　　But　after　this　great　step　had　been　completed；　the　subsequent

progress　of　mankind　seems　by　no　means　to　have　been　so　rapid

（certain　rare　combinations　of　circumstances　excepted）　as　might

perhaps　have　been　anticipated。　The　quantity　of　human　food　which

the　earth　is　capable　of　returning　even　to　the　most　wretched

system　of　agriculture；　so　much　exceeds　what　could　be　obtained　in

the　purely　pastoral　state；　that　a　great　increase　of　population　is

invariably　the　result。　But　this　additional　food　is　only　obtained

by　a　great　additional　amount　of　labour；　so　that　not　only　an

agricultural　has　much　less　leisure　than　a　pastoral　population；

but；　with　the　imperfect　tools　and　unskilful　processes　which　are

for　a　long　time　employed　（and　which　over　the　greater　part　of　the

earth　have　not　even　yet　been　abandoned）；　agriculturists　do　not；

unless　in　unusually　advantageous　circumstances　of　climate　and

soil；　produce　so　great　a　surplus　of　food；　beyond　their　necessary

consumption；　as　to　support　any　large　class　of　labourers　engaged

in　other　departments　of　industry。　The　surplus；　too；　whether　small

or　great；　is　usually　torn　from　the　producers；　either　by　the

government　to　which　they　are　subject；　or　by　individuals；　who　by

superior　force；　or　by　availing　themselves　of　religious　or

traditional　feelings　of　subordination；　have　established

themselves　as　lords　of　the　soil。

　　　　The　first　of　these　modes　of　appropriation；　by　the　government；

is　characteristic　of　the　extensive　monarchies　which　from　a　time

beyond　historical　record　have　occupied　the　plains　of　Asia。　The

government；　in　those　countries；　though　varying　in　its　qualities

according　to　the　accidents　of　personal　character；　seldom　leaves

much　to　the　cultivators　beyond　mere　necessaries；　and　often　strips

them　so　bare　even　of　these；　that　it　finds　itself　obliged；　after

taking　all　they　have；　to　lend　part　of　it　back　to　those　from　whom

it　has　been　taken；　in　order　to　provide　them　with　seed；　and　enable

them　to　support　life　until　another　harvest。　Under　the　r間ime　in

question；　though　the　bulk　of　the　population　are　ill　provided　for；

the　government；　by　collecting　small　contributions　from　great

numbers；　is　enabled；　with　any　tolerable　management；　to　make　a

show　of　riches　quite　out　of　proportion　to　the　general　condition

of　the　society；　and　hence　the　inveterate　impression；　of　which

Europeans　have　only　at　a　late　period　been　disabused；　concerning

the　great　opulence　of　Oriental　nations。　In　this　wealth；　without

reckoning　the　large　portion　which　adheres　to　the　hands　employed

in　collecting　it；　many　persons　of　course　participate；　besides　the

immediate　household　of　the　sovereign。　A　large　part　is　distributed

among　the　various　functionaries　of　government；　and　among　the

objects　of　the　sovereign's　favour　or　caprice。　A　part　is

occasionally　employed　in　works　of　public　utility。　The　tanks；

wells；　and　canals　for　irrigation；　without　which　in　many　tropical

climates　cultivation　could　hardly　be　carried　on；　the　embankments

which　confine　the　rivers；　the　bazars　for　dealers；　and　the　seraees

for　travellers；　none　of　which　could　have　been　made　by　the　scanty

means　in　the　possession　of　those　using　them；　owe　their　existence

to　the　liberality　and　enlightened　self…interest　of　the　better

order　of　princes；　or　to　the　benevolence　or　ostentation　of　here

and　there　a　rich　individual；　whose　fortune；　if　traced　to　its

source；　is　always　found　to　have　been　drawn　immediately　or

remotely　from　the　public　revenue；　most　frequently　by　a　direct

grant　of　a　portion　of　it　from　the　sovereign。

　　　　The　ruler　of　a　society　of　this　description；　after　providing

largely　for　his　own　support；　and　that　of　all　persons　in　whom　he

feels　an　interest；　and　after　maintaining　as　many　soldiers　as　he

thinks　needful　for　his　security　or　his　state；　has　a　disposable

residue；　which　he　is　glad　to　exchange　for　articles　of　luxury

suitable　to　his　disposition：　as　have　also　the　class　of　persons

who　have　been　enriched　by　his　favour；　or　by　handling　the　public

revenues。　A　demand　thus　arises　for　elaborate　and　costly

manufactured　articles；　adapted　to　a　narrow　but　a　wealthy　market。

This　demand　is　often　supplied　almost　exclusively　by　the　merchants

of　more　advanced　communities；　but　often　also　raises　up　in　the

country　itself　a　class　of　artificers；　by　whom　certain　fabrics　are

carried　to　as　high　excellence　as　can　be　given　by　patience；

quickness　of　perception　and　observation；　and　manual　dexterity；

without　any　considerable　knowledge　of　the　properties　of　objects：

such　as　some　of　the　cotton　fabrics　of　India。　These　artificers　are

fed　by　the　surplus　food　which　has　been　taken　by　the　government

and　its　agents　as　their　share　of　the　produce。　So　literally　is

this　the　case；　that　in　some　countries　the　workman；　instead　of

taking　his　work　home；　and　being　paid　for　it　after　it　is　finished；

proceeds　with　his　tools　to　his　customer's　house；　and　is　there

subsisted　until　the　work　is　complete。　The　insecurity；　however；　of

all　possessions　in　this　state　of　society；　induces　even　the

richest　purchasers　to　give　a　preference　to　such　articles　as；

being　of　an　imperishable　nature；　and　containing　great　value　in

small　bulk；　are　adapted　for　being　concealed　or　carried　off。　Gold

and　jewels；　therefore；　constitute　a　large　proportion　of　the

wealth　of　these　nations；　and　many　a　rich　Asiatic　carries　nearly

his　whole　fortune　on　his　person；　or　on　those　of　the　women　of　his

harem。　No　one；　except　the　monarch；　thinks　of　investing　his　wealth

in　a　manner　not　susceptible　of　removal。　He；　indeed；　if　he　feels

safe　on　his　throne；　and　reasonably　secure　of　transmitting　it　to

his　descendants；　sometimes　indulges　a　taste　for　durable　edifices；

and　produces　the　Pyramids；　or　the　Taj　Mehal　and　the　Mausoleum　at

Sekundra。　The　rude　manufactures　destined　for　the　wants　of　the

cultivators　are　worked　up　by　village　artisans；　who　are

remunerated　by　land　given　to　them　rent…free　to　cultivate；　or　by

fees　paid　to　them　in　kind　from　such　share　of　the　crop　as　is　left

to　the　villagers　by　the　government。　This　state　of　society；

however；　is　not　destitute　of　a　mercantile　class；　composed　of　two

divisions；　grain　dealers　and　money　dealers。　The　grain　dealers　do

not　usually　buy　grain　from　the　producers；　but　from　the　agents　of

government；　who；　receiving　the　revenue　in　kind；　are　glad　to

devolve　upon　others　the　business　of　conveying　it　to　the　places

where　the　prince；　his　chief　civil　and　military　officers；　the　bulk

of　his　troops；　and　the　artisans　who　supply　the　wants　of　these

various　persons；　are　assembled。　The　money　dealers　lend　to　the

unfortunate　cultivators；　when　ruined　by　bad　seasons　or　fiscal

exactions；　the　means　of　supporting　life　and　continuing　their

cultivation；　and　are　repaid　with　enormous　interest　at　the　next

harvest；　or；　on　a　larger　scale；　they　lend　to　the　government；　or

to　those　to　whom　it　has　granted　a　portion　of　the　revenue；　and　are

indemnified　by　assignments　on　the　revenue　collectors；　or　by

having　certain　districts　put　into　their　possession；　that　they　may

pay　themselves　from　the　revenues；　to　enable　them　to　do　which；　a

great　portion　of　the　powers　of　government　are　usually　made　over

simultaneously；　to　be　exercised　by　them　until　either　the

districts　are　redeemed；　or　their　receipts　have　liquidated　the

debt。　Thus；　the　commercial　operations　of　both　these　classes　of

dealers　take　pLace　principally　upon　that　part　of　the　produce　of

the　country　which　forms　the　revenue　of　the　government。　From　that

revenue　their　capital　is　periodically　replaced　with　a　profit；　and

that　is　also　the　source　from　which　their　original　funds　have

almost　always　been　derived。　Such；　in　its　general　features；　is　the

economical　condition　of　most　of　the　countries　of　Asia；　as　it　has

been　from　beyond　the　commencement　of　authentic　history；　an