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For　example；　in　estimates　of　the　gross　income　of　the　country；

founded　on　the　proceeds　of　the　income…tax；　incomes　derived　from

the　funds　are　not　always　excluded：　though　the　tax…payers　are

assessed　on　their　whole　nominal　income；　without　being　permitted

to　deduct　from　it　the　portion　levied　from　them　in　taxation　to

form　the　income　of　the　fundholder。　In　this　calculation；

therefore；　one　portion　of　the　general　income　of　the　country　is

counted　twice　over；　and　the　aggregate　amount　made　to　appear

greater　than　it　is　by　almost　thirty　millions。　A　country；　however；

may　include　in　its　wealth　all　stock　held　by　its　citizens　in　the

funds　of　foreign　countries；　and　other　debts　due　to　them　from

abroad。　But　even　this　is　only　wealth　to　them　by　being　a　part

ownership　in　wealth　held　by　others。　It　forms　no　part　of　the

collective　wealth　of　the　human　race。　It　is　an　element　in　the

distribution；　but　not　in　the　composition；　of　the　general　wealth。

　　　　Another　example　of　a　possession　which　is　wealth　to　the　person

holding　it；　but　not　wealth　to　the　nation；　or　to　mankind；　is

slaves。　It　is　by　a　strange　confusion　of　ideas　that　slave　property

（as　it　is　termed）　is　counted；　at　so　much　per　head；　in　an　estimate

of　the　wealth；　or　of　the　capital；　of　the　country　which　tolerates

the　existence　of　such　property。　If　a　human　being；　considered　as

an　object　possessing　productive　powers；　is　part　of　the　national

wealth　when　his　powers　are　owned　by　another　man；　he　cannot　be

less　a　part　of　it　when　they　are　owned　by　himself。　Whatever　he　is

worth　to　his　master　is　so　much　property　abstracted　from　himself；

and　its　abstraction　cannot　augment　the　possessions　of　the　two

together；　or　of　the　country　to　which　they　both　belong。　In

propriety　of　classification；　however；　the　people　of　a　country　are

not　to　be　counted　in　its　wealth。　They　are　that　for　the　sake　of

which　its　wealth　exists。　The　term　wealth　is　wanted　to　denote　the

desirable　objects　which　they　possess；　not　inclusive　of；　but　in

contradistinction　to；　their　own　persons。　They　are　not　wealth　to

themselves；　though　they　are　means　of　acquiring　it。

　　　　It　has　been　proposed　to　define　wealth　as　signifying

〃instruments：〃　meaning　not　tools　and　machinery　alone；　but　the

whole　accumulation　possessed　by　individuals　or　communities；　of

means　for　the　attainment　of　their　ends。　Thus；　a　field　is　an

instrument；　because　it　is　a　means　to　the　attainment　of　corn。　Corn

is　an　instrument；　being　a　means　to　the　attainment　of　flour。　Flour

is　an　instrument；　being　a　means　to　the　attainment　of　bread。　Bread

is　an　instrument；　as　a　means　to　the　satisfaction　of　hunger　and　to

the　support　of　life。　Here　we　at　last　arrive　at　things　which　are

not　instruments；　being　desired　on　their　own　account；　and　not　as

mere　means　to　something　beyond。　This　view　of　the　subject　is

philosophically　correct；　or　rather；　this　mode　of　expression　may

be　usefully　employed　along　with　others；　not　as　conveying　a

different　view　of　the　subject　from　the　common　one；　but　as　giving

more　distinctness　and　reality　to　the　common　view。　It　departs；

however；　too　widely　from　the　custom　of　language；　to　be　likely　to

obtain　general　acceptance；　or　to　be　of　use　for　any　other　purpose

than　that　of　occasional　illustration。

　　　　Wealth；　then；　may　be　defined；　all　useful　or　agreeable　things

which　possess　exchangeable　value；　or；　in　other　words；　all　useful

or　agreeable　things　except　those　which　can　be　obtained；　in　the

quantity　desired；　without　labour　or　sacrifice。　To　this

definition；　the　only　objection　seems　to　be；　that　it　leaves　in

uncertainty　a　question　which　has　been　much　debated　　whether

what　are　called　immaterial　products　are　to　be　considered　as

wealth：　whether；　for　example；　the　skill　of　a　workman；　or　any

other　natural　or　acquired　power　of　body　or　mind；　shall　be　called

wealth；　or　not：　a　question；　not　of　very　great　importance；　and

which；　so　far　as　requiring　discussion；　will　be　more　conveniently

considered　in　another　place。

　　　　These　things　having　been　premised　respecting　wealth；　we　shall

next　turn　our　attention　to　the　extraordinary　differences　in

respect　to　it；　which　exist　between　nation　and　nation；　and　between

different　ages　of　the　world；　differences　both　in　the　quantity　of

wealth；　and　in　the　kind　of　it；　as　well　as　in　the　manner　in　which

the　wealth　existing　in　the　community　is　shared　among　its　members。

　　　　There　is　perhaps；　no　people　or　community；　now　existing；　which

subsists　entirely　on　the　spontaneous　produce　of　vegetation。　But

many　tribes　still　live　exclusively；　or　almost　exclusively；　on

wild　animals；　the　produce　of　hunting　or　fishing。　Their　clothing

is　skins；　their　habitations；　huts　rudely　formed　of　logs　or　boughs

of　trees；　and　abandoned　at　an　hour's　notice。　The　food　they　use

being　little　susceptible　of　storing　up；　they　have　no　accumulation

of　it；　and　are　often　exposed　to　great　privations。　The　wealth　of

such　a　community　consists　solely　of　the　skins　they　wear；　a　few

ornaments；　the　taste　for　which　exists　among　most　savages；　some

rude　utensils；　the　weapons　with　which　they　kill　their　game；　or

fight　against　hostile　competitors　for　the　means　of　subsistence；

canoes　for　crossing　rivers　and　lakes；　or　fishing　in　the　sea；　and

perhaps　some　furs　or　other　productions　of　the　wilderness；

collected　to　be　exchanged　with　civilized　people　for　blankets；

brandy；　and　tobacco；　of　which　foreign　produce　also　there　may　be

some　unconsumed　portion　in　store。　To　this　scanty　inventory　of

material　wealth；　ought　to　be　added　their　land；　an　instrument　of

production　of　which　they　make　slender　use；　compared　with　more

settled　communities；　but　which　is　still　the　source　of　their

subsistence；　and　which　has　a　marketable　value　if　there　be　any

agricultural　community　in　the　neighbourhood　requiring　more　land

than　it　possesses。　This　is　the　state　of　greatest　poverty　in　which

any　entire　community　of　human　beings　is　known　to　exist；　though

there　are　much　richer　communities　in　which　portions　of　the

inhabitants　are　in　a　condition；　as　to　subsistence　and　comfort；　as

little　enviable　as　that　of　the　savage。

　　　　The　first　great　advance　beyond　this　state　consists　in　the

domestication　of　the　more　useful　animals；　giving　rise　to　the

pastoral　or　nomad　state；　in　which　mankind　do　not　live　on　the

produce　of　hunting；　but　on　milk　and　its　products；　and　on　the

annual　increase　of　flocks　and　herds。　This　condition　is　not　only

more　desirable　in　itself；　but　more　conducive　to　further　progress：

and　a　much　more　considerable　amount　of　wealth　is　accumulated

under　it。　So　long　as　the　vast　natural　pastures　of　the　earth　are

not　yet　so　fully　occupied　as　to　be　consumed　more　rapidly　than

they　are　spontaneously　reproduced；　a　large　and　constantly

increasing　stock　of　subsistence　may　be　collected　and　preserved；

with　little　other　labour　than　that　of　guarding　the　cattle　from

the　attacks　of　wild　beasts；　and　from　the　force　or　wiles　of

predatory　men。　Large　flocks　and　herds；　therefore；　are　in　time

possessed；　by　active　and　thrifty　individuals　through　their　own

exertions；　and　by　the　heads　of　families　and　tribes　through　the

exertions　of　those　who　are　connected　with　them　by　allegiance。

There　thus　arises；　in　the　shepherd　state；　inequality　of

possessions；　a　thing　which　scarcely　exists　in　the　savage　state；

where　no　one　has　much　more　than　absolute　necessaries；　and　in　case

of　deficiency　must　share　even　those　with　his　tribe。　In　the　nomad

state；　some　have　an　abundance　of　cattle；　sufficient　for　the　food

of　a　multitude；　while　others　have　not　contrived　to　appropriate

and　retain　any　superfluity；　or　perhaps　any　cattle　at　all。　But

subsistence　has　ceased　to　be　precarious；　since　the　more

successful　have　no　other　use　which　they　can　make　of　their　surplus

than　to　feed　the　less　fortunate；　while　every　increase　in　the

number　of　persons　connected　with　them　is　an　increase　both　of

security　and　of　power：　and　thus　they　are　enabled　to　divest

themselves　of　all　labour　except　that　of　government　and

superintendence；　and　acquire　dependents　to　fight　for　them　in　war

and　to　serve　them　in　peace。　One　of　the　features　of　this　state　of

society　is；　that　a　part　of　the　community；　and　in　some　degree　even

the　whole　of　it；　possess　leisure。　Only　a　portion　of　time　is

required　for　procuring　food；　and　the　remainder　is　not　engrossed

by　anxious　thought　for　the　morrow；　or　necessary　repose　from

muscular　activity。　Such　a　life　is　highly　favourable　to　the　growth

of　new　wants；　and　opens　a　possibility　of　their　gratification。　A

desire　arises　for　better　clothing；　utensils；　and　implements；　than

the　savage　state　contents　itself　with；　and　the　surplus　food

renders　it　practicable　to　devote　to　these　purposes　the　exertions

of　a　part　of　the　tribe。　In　all　or　most　nomad　communities　we　find

domestic　manufactures　of　a　coarse；　and　in　some；　of　a　fine　kind。

There　is　ample　evidence　that　while　those　parts　of　the　world　which

have　been　the　cradle　of　modern　civilization　were　still　generally

in　the　nomad　state；　considerable　skill　had　been　attained　in

spinning；　weaving；　and　dyeing　woollen　garments；　in　t