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If¡¡it¡¡should¡¡be¡¡suggested¡¡that¡¡what¡¡has¡¡been¡¡said¡¡goes¡¡to¡¡show¡¡that¡¡the¡¡first¡¡grantor's¡¡duty¡¡to¡¡warrant¡¡arose¡¡from¡¡the¡¡assign's¡¡becoming¡¡his¡¡man¡¡and¡¡owing¡¡homage£»¡¡the¡¡answer¡¡is¡¡that¡¡he¡¡was¡¡not¡¡bound¡¡unless¡¡he¡¡had¡¡mentioned¡¡assigns¡¡in¡¡his¡¡grant£»¡¡homage¡¡or¡¡no¡¡homage¡£¡¡In¡¡this¡¡Bracton¡¡is¡¡confirmed¡¡by¡¡all¡¡the¡¡later¡¡authorities¡£¡¡/2/

Another¡¡rule¡¡on¡¡which¡¡there¡¡are¡¡vast¡¡stores¡¡of¡¡forgotten¡¡learning¡¡will¡¡show¡¡how¡¡exactly¡¡the¡¡fiction¡¡fell¡¡in¡¡with¡¡the¡¡earlier¡¡law¡£¡¡Only¡¡those¡¡who¡¡were¡¡privy¡¡in¡¡estate¡¡with¡¡the¡¡person¡¡to¡¡whom¡¡the¡¡warranty¡¡was¡¡originally¡¡given£»¡¡could¡¡vouch¡¡the¡¡original¡¡warrantor¡£¡¡Looking¡¡back¡¡to¡¡the¡¡early¡¡£§376£§¡¡procedure£»¡¡it¡¡will¡¡be¡¡seen¡¡that¡¡of¡¡course¡¡only¡¡those¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡chain¡¡of¡¡title¡¡could¡¡even¡¡mediately¡¡get¡¡the¡¡benefit¡¡of¡¡a¡¡former¡¡owner's¡¡warranty¡£¡¡The¡¡ground¡¡on¡¡which¡¡a¡¡man¡¡was¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡warrant¡¡was¡¡that¡¡he¡¡had¡¡conveyed¡¡the¡¡property¡¡to¡¡the¡¡person¡¡who¡¡summoned¡¡him¡£¡¡Hence¡¡a¡¡man¡¡could¡¡summon¡¡no¡¡one¡¡but¡¡his¡¡grantor£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡successive¡¡vouchers¡¡came¡¡to¡¡an¡¡end¡¡when¡¡the¡¡last¡¡vouchee¡¡could¡¡not¡¡call¡¡on¡¡another¡¡from¡¡whom¡¡he¡¡had¡¡bought¡£¡¡Now¡¡when¡¡the¡¡process¡¡was¡¡abridged£»¡¡no¡¡persons¡¡were¡¡made¡¡liable¡¡to¡¡summons¡¡who¡¡would¡¡not¡¡have¡¡been¡¡liable¡¡before¡£¡¡The¡¡present¡¡owner¡¡was¡¡allowed¡¡to¡¡vouch¡¡directly¡¡those¡¡who¡¡otherwise¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡indirectly¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡defend¡¡his¡¡title£»¡¡but¡¡no¡¡others¡£¡¡Hence¡¡he¡¡could¡¡only¡¡summon¡¡those¡¡from¡¡whom¡¡his¡¡grantor¡¡derived¡¡his¡¡title¡£¡¡But¡¡this¡¡was¡¡equally¡¡well¡¡expressed¡¡in¡¡terms¡¡of¡¡the¡¡fiction¡¡employed¡£¡¡In¡¡order¡¡to¡¡vouch£»¡¡the¡¡present¡¡owner¡¡must¡¡have¡¡the¡¡estate¡¡of¡¡the¡¡person¡¡to¡¡whom¡¡the¡¡warranty¡¡was¡¡made¡£¡¡As¡¡every¡¡lawyer¡¡knows£»¡¡the¡¡estate¡¡does¡¡not¡¡mean¡¡the¡¡land¡£¡¡It¡¡means¡¡the¡¡status¡¡or¡¡persona¡¡in¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡that¡¡land¡¡formerly¡¡sustained¡¡by¡¡another¡£¡¡The¡¡same¡¡word¡¡was¡¡used¡¡in¡¡alleging¡¡a¡¡right¡¡by¡¡prescription£»¡¡¡¨that¡¡he¡¡and¡¡those¡¡whose¡¡estate¡¡he¡¡hath¡¡have¡¡for¡¡time¡¡whereof¡¡memory¡¡runneth¡¡not¡¡to¡¡the¡¡contrary£»¡¨¡¡&c¡££»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡will¡¡be¡¡remembered¡¡that¡¡the¡¡word¡¡corresponds¡¡to¡¡the¡¡same¡¡requirement¡¡of¡¡succession¡¡there¡£

To¡¡return¡¡to¡¡Bracton£»¡¡it¡¡must¡¡be¡¡understood¡¡that¡¡the¡¡description¡¡of¡¡assigns¡¡as¡¡quasi¡¡heredes¡¡is¡¡not¡¡accidental¡£¡¡He¡¡describes¡¡them¡¡in¡¡that¡¡way¡¡whenever¡¡he¡¡has¡¡occasion¡¡to¡¡speak¡¡of¡¡them¡£¡¡He¡¡even¡¡pushes¡¡the¡¡reasoning¡¡drawn¡¡from¡¡the¡¡analogy¡¡of¡¡inheritance¡¡to¡¡extremes£»¡¡and¡¡refers¡¡to¡¡it¡¡in¡¡countless¡¡passages¡£¡¡For¡¡instance£º¡¡¡¨It¡¡should¡¡be¡¡noted¡¡that¡¡of¡¡heirs¡¡some¡¡are¡¡true¡¡heirs¡¡and¡¡some¡¡quasi¡¡£§377£§¡¡heirs£»¡¡in¡¡place¡¡of¡¡heirs£»¡¡&c¡££»¡¡true¡¡heirs¡¡by¡¡way¡¡of¡¡succession¡¡quasi¡¡heirs£»¡¡&c¡£¡¡by¡¡the¡¡form¡¡of¡¡the¡¡gift£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡assigns£»¡¨¡¡&c¡£¡¡/1/

If¡¡it¡¡should¡¡be¡¡suggested¡¡that¡¡Bracton's¡¡language¡¡is¡¡only¡¡a¡¡piece¡¡of¡¡mediaeval¡¡scholasticism£»¡¡there¡¡are¡¡several¡¡answers¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡first¡¡place¡¡it¡¡is¡¡nearly¡¡contemporaneous¡¡with¡¡the¡¡first¡¡appearance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡right¡¡in¡¡question¡£¡¡This¡¡is¡¡shown¡¡by¡¡his¡¡citing¡¡authority¡¡for¡¡it¡¡as¡¡for¡¡something¡¡which¡¡might¡¡be¡¡disputed¡£¡¡He¡¡says£»¡¡¡¨And¡¡that¡¡warranty¡¡must¡¡be¡¡made¡¡to¡¡assigns¡¡according¡¡to¡¡the¡¡form¡¡of¡¡the¡¡gift¡¡is¡¡proved¡¡£§by¡¡a¡¡case£§¡¡in¡¡the¡¡circuit¡¡of¡¡W¡£¡¡de¡¡Ralegh£»¡¡about¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡roll£»¡¨&c¡£¡¡/2/¡¡It¡¡is¡¡not¡¡justifiable¡¡to¡¡assume¡¡that¡¡a¡¡contemporary¡¡explanation¡¡of¡¡a¡¡new¡¡rule¡¡had¡¡nothing¡¡to¡¡do¡¡with¡¡its¡¡appearance¡£¡¡Again£»¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡is¡¡clear¡¡that¡¡the¡¡assign¡¡got¡¡the¡¡benefit¡¡of¡¡the¡¡warranty¡¡to¡¡the¡¡first¡¡grantee£»¡¡not¡¡of¡¡a¡¡new¡¡one¡¡to¡¡himself£»¡¡as¡¡has¡¡been¡¡shown£»¡¡and¡¡Bracton's¡¡explanation¡¡of¡¡how¡¡this¡¡was¡¡worked¡¡out¡¡falls¡¡in¡¡with¡¡what¡¡has¡¡been¡¡seen¡¡of¡¡the¡¡course¡¡of¡¡the¡¡German¡¡and¡¡Anglo¡­Saxon¡¡law£»¡¡and¡¡with¡¡the¡¡pervading¡¡thought¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡law¡£¡¡Finally£»¡¡and¡¡most¡¡important£»¡¡the¡¡requirement¡¡that¡¡the¡¡assign¡¡should¡¡be¡¡in¡¡of¡¡the¡¡first¡¡grantee's¡¡estate¡¡has¡¡remained¡¡a¡¡requirement¡¡from¡¡that¡¡day¡¡to¡¡this¡£¡¡The¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing¡¡is¡¡required¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡words¡¡as¡¡in¡¡prescription¡¡goes¡¡far¡¡to¡¡show¡¡that¡¡the¡¡same¡¡technical¡¡thought¡¡has¡¡governed¡¡both¡£

I¡¡have¡¡said£»¡¡Glanvill's¡¡predecessors¡¡probably¡¡regarded¡¡warranty¡¡as¡¡an¡¡obligation¡¡incident¡¡to¡¡a¡¡conveyance£»¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡as¡¡a¡¡contract¡£¡¡But¡¡when¡¡it¡¡became¡¡usual¡¡to¡¡insert¡¡the¡¡undertaking¡¡to¡¡warrant¡¡in¡¡a¡¡deed¡¡or¡¡charter¡¡of¡¡feoffment£»¡¡it¡¡lost¡¡something¡¡of¡¡its¡¡former¡¡isolation¡¡as¡¡a¡¡duty¡¡standing¡¡by¡¡itself£»¡¡and¡¡admitted¡¡of¡¡being¡¡£§378£§¡¡generalized¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡by¡¡deed£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡by¡¡deed¡¡was¡¡a¡¡covenant¡£¡¡/1/¡¡This¡¡was¡¡a¡¡covenant¡¡having¡¡peculiar¡¡consequences¡¡attached¡¡to¡¡it£»¡¡no¡¡doubt¡£¡¡It¡¡differed¡¡also¡¡in¡¡the¡¡scope¡¡of¡¡its¡¡obligation¡¡from¡¡some¡¡other¡¡covenants£»¡¡as¡¡will¡¡be¡¡shown¡¡hereafter¡£¡¡But¡¡still¡¡it¡¡was¡¡a¡¡covenant£»¡¡and¡¡could¡¡sometimes¡¡be¡¡sued¡¡on¡¡as¡¡such¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡spoken¡¡of¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Year¡¡Books¡¡of¡¡Edward¡¡III¡£¡¡as¡¡a¡¡covenant¡¡which¡¡¡¨falls¡¡in¡¡the¡¡blood£»¡¨¡¡/2/¡¡as¡¡distinguished¡¡from¡¡those¡¡where¡¡the¡¡acquittance¡¡fell¡¡on¡¡the¡¡land£»¡¡and¡¡not¡¡on¡¡the¡¡person¡£¡¡/3/

The¡¡importance¡¡of¡¡this¡¡circumstance¡¡lies¡¡in¡¡the¡¡working¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡warranty¡¡upon¡¡other¡¡covenants¡¡which¡¡took¡¡its¡¡place¡£¡¡When¡¡the¡¡old¡¡actions¡¡for¡¡land¡¡gave¡¡way¡¡to¡¡more¡¡modern¡¡and¡¡speedier¡¡forms£»¡¡warrantors¡¡were¡¡no¡¡longer¡¡vouched¡¡in¡¡to¡¡defend£»¡¡and¡¡if¡¡a¡¡grantee¡¡was¡¡evicted£»¡¡damages¡¡took¡¡the¡¡place¡¡of¡¡a¡¡grant¡¡of¡¡other¡¡land¡£¡¡The¡¡ancient¡¡warranty¡¡disappeared£»¡¡and¡¡was¡¡replaced¡¡by¡¡the¡¡covenants¡¡which¡¡we¡¡still¡¡find¡¡in¡¡our¡¡deeds£»¡¡including¡¡the¡¡covenants¡¡for¡¡seisin£»¡¡for¡¡right¡¡to¡¡convey£»¡¡against¡¡incumbrances£»¡¡for¡¡quiet¡¡enjoyment£»¡¡of¡¡warranty£»¡¡and¡¡for¡¡further¡¡assurance¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡principles¡¡on¡¡which¡¡an¡¡assign¡¡could¡¡have¡¡the¡¡benefit¡¡of¡¡these¡¡covenants¡¡were¡¡derived¡¡from¡¡those¡¡which¡¡governed¡¡warranty£»¡¡as¡¡any¡¡one¡¡may¡¡see¡¡by¡¡looking¡¡at¡¡the¡¡earlier¡¡decisions¡£

For¡¡instance£»¡¡the¡¡question£»¡¡what¡¡was¡¡a¡¡sufficient¡¡assignment¡¡to¡¡give¡¡an¡¡assign¡¡the¡¡benefit¡¡of¡¡a¡¡covenant¡¡for¡¡quiet¡¡enjoyment£»¡¡was¡¡argued¡¡and¡¡decided¡¡on¡¡the¡¡authority¡¡of¡¡the¡¡old¡¡cases¡¡of¡¡warranty¡£¡¡/4/

£§379£§¡¡The¡¡assign£»¡¡as¡¡in¡¡warranty£»¡¡came¡¡in¡¡under¡¡the¡¡old¡¡covenant¡¡with¡¡the¡¡first¡¡covenantee£»¡¡not¡¡by¡¡any¡¡new¡¡right¡¡of¡¡his¡¡own¡£¡¡Thus£»¡¡in¡¡an¡¡action¡¡by¡¡an¡¡assign¡¡on¡¡a¡¡covenant¡¡for¡¡further¡¡assurance£»¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡set¡¡up¡¡a¡¡release¡¡by¡¡the¡¡original¡¡covenantee¡¡after¡¡the¡¡commencement¡¡of¡¡the¡¡suit¡£¡¡The¡¡court¡¡held¡¡that¡¡the¡¡assignee¡¡should¡¡have¡¡the¡¡benefit¡¡of¡¡the¡¡covenant¡£¡¡¡¨They¡¡held£»¡¡that¡¡although¡¡the¡¡breach¡¡was¡¡in¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡the¡¡assignee£»¡¡yet¡¡if¡¡the¡¡release¡¡had¡¡been¡¡by¡¡the¡¡covenantee¡¡£¨who¡¡is¡¡a¡¡party¡¡to¡¡the¡¡deed£»¡¡and¡¡from¡¡whom¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡¡derives£©¡¡before¡¡any¡¡breach£»¡¡or¡¡before¡¡the¡¡suit¡¡commenced£»¡¡it¡¡had¡¡been¡¡a¡¡good¡¡bar¡¡to¡¡the¡¡assignee¡¡from¡¡bringing¡¡this¡¡writ¡¡of¡¡covenant¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡breach¡¡of¡¡the¡¡covenant¡¡being¡¡in¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡the¡¡assignee£»¡¡¡£¡£¡£¡¡and¡¡the¡¡action¡¡brought¡¡by¡¡him£»¡¡and¡¡so¡¡attached¡¡in¡¡his¡¡person£»¡¡the¡¡covenantee¡¡cannot¡¡release¡¡this¡¡action¡¡wherein¡¡the¡¡assignee¡¡is¡¡interested¡£¡¨¡¡/1/¡¡The¡¡covenantee¡¡even¡¡after¡¡assignment¡¡remains¡¡the¡¡legal¡¡party¡¡to¡¡the¡¡contract¡£¡¡The¡¡assign¡¡comes¡¡in¡¡under¡¡him£»¡¡and¡¡does¡¡not¡¡put¡¡an¡¡end¡¡to¡¡his¡¡control¡¡over¡¡it£»¡¡until¡¡by¡¡breach¡¡and¡¡action¡¡a¡¡new¡¡right¡¡attaches¡¡in¡¡the¡¡assign's¡¡person£»¡¡distinct¡¡from¡¡the¡¡rights¡¡derived¡¡from¡¡the¡¡persona¡¡of¡¡his¡¡grantor¡£¡¡Later£»¡¡the¡¡assign¡¡got¡¡a¡¡more¡¡independent¡¡standing£»¡¡as¡¡the¡¡original¡¡foundation¡¡of¡¡his¡¡rights¡¡sunk¡¡gradually¡¡out¡¡of¡¡sight£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡release¡¡after¡¡assignment¡¡became¡¡ineffectual£»¡¡at¡¡least¡¡in¡¡the¡¡case¡¡of¡¡a¡¡covenant¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡rent¡£¡¡/2/

Only¡¡privies¡¡in¡¡estate¡¡with¡¡the¡¡original¡¡covenantee¡¡can¡¡have¡¡the¡¡benefit¡¡of¡¡covenants¡¡for¡¡title¡£¡¡It¡¡has¡¡been¡¡shown¡¡that¡¡a¡¡similar¡¡limitation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡benefits¡¡of¡¡the¡¡ancient¡¡£§380£§¡¡warranty¡¡was¡¡required¡¡by¡¡its¡¡earlier¡¡history¡¡before¡¡the¡¡assign¡¡was¡¡allowed¡¡to¡¡sue£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡the¡¡fiction¡¡by¡¡which¡¡he¡¡got¡¡that¡¡right¡¡could¡¡not¡¡extend¡¡it¡¡beyond¡¡that¡¡limit¡£¡¡This¡¡analogy¡¡also¡¡was¡¡followed¡£¡¡For¡¡instance£»¡¡a¡¡tenant¡¡in¡¡tail¡¡male¡¡made¡¡a¡¡lease¡¡for¡¡years¡¡with¡¡covenants¡¡of¡¡right¡¡to¡¡let¡¡and¡¡for¡¡quiet¡¡enjoyment£»¡¡and¡¡then¡¡died¡¡without¡¡issue¡¡male¡£¡¡The¡¡lessee¡¡assigned¡¡the¡¡lease¡¡to¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡£¡¡The¡¡latter¡¡was¡¡soon¡¡turned¡¡out£»¡¡and¡¡thereupon¡¡brought¡¡an¡¡action¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡covenant¡¡against¡¡the¡¡executor¡¡of¡¡the¡¡lessor¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡held¡¡that¡¡he¡¡could¡¡not¡¡recover£»¡¡because¡¡he¡¡was¡¡not¡¡privy¡¡in¡¡estate¡¡with¡¡the¡¡original¡¡covenantee¡£¡¡For¡¡the¡¡lease£»¡¡which¡¡was¡¡the¡¡original¡¡covenantee's¡¡estate£»¡¡was¡¡ended¡¡by¡¡the¡¡death¡¡of¡¡the¡¡lessor¡¡and¡¡termination¡¡of¡¡the¡¡estate¡¡tail¡¡out¡¡of¡¡which¡¡the¡¡lease¡¡was¡¡granted£»¡¡before¡¡the¡¡form¡¡of¡¡assignment¡¡to¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡£¡¡/1/

The¡¡only¡¡point¡¡remaining¡¡to¡¡make¡¡the¡¡analogy¡¡between¡¡covenants¡¡for¡¡title¡¡and¡¡warranty¡¡complete¡¡was¡¡to¡¡require¡¡assigns¡¡to¡¡be¡¡mentioned¡¡in¡¡order¡¡to¡¡enable¡¡them¡¡to¡¡sue¡£¡¡In¡¡modern¡¡times£»¡¡of¡¡course£»¡¡such¡¡a¡¡requirement£»¡¡if¡¡it¡¡should¡¡exist£»¡¡would¡¡be¡¡purely¡¡formal£»¡¡and¡¡would¡¡be¡¡of¡¡no¡¡importance¡¡except¡¡as¡¡an¡¡ear¡­mark¡¡by¡¡which¡¡to¡¡trace¡¡the¡¡history¡¡of¡¡a¡¡doctrine¡£¡¡It¡¡would¡¡aid¡¡our¡¡studies¡¡if¡¡we¡¡could¡¡say¡¡that¡¡wherever¡¡assigns¡¡are¡¡to¡¡get¡¡the¡¡benefit¡¡of¡¡a¡¡covenant¡¡as¡¡privies¡¡in¡¡estate¡¡with¡¡the¡¡covenantee£»¡¡they¡¡must¡¡be¡¡mentioned¡¡in¡¡the¡¡covenant¡£¡¡Whether¡¡such¡¡a¡¡requirement¡¡does¡¡exist¡¡or¡¡not¡¡would¡¡be¡¡hard¡¡to¡¡tell¡¡from¡¡the¡¡decisions¡¡alone¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡commonly¡¡supposed¡¡not¡¡to¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡popular¡¡opinion¡¡on¡¡this¡¡trifling¡¡point¡¡springs¡¡from¡¡a¡¡failure¡¡to¡¡understand¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡great¡¡antinomies¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law£»¡¡which¡¡must¡¡now¡¡be¡¡explained¡£

So¡¡far¡¡as¡¡we¡¡have¡¡gone£»¡¡we¡¡have¡¡found¡¡that£»¡¡wherever¡¡£§381£§¡¡one¡¡party¡¡steps¡¡into¡¡the¡¡rights¡¡or¡¡obligations¡¡of¡¡another£»¡¡without¡¡in¡¡turn¡¡filling¡¡the¡¡situation¡¡of¡¡fact¡¡of¡¡which¡¡those¡¡rights¡¡or¡¡obligations¡¡are¡¡the¡¡legal¡¡consequences£»¡¡the¡¡substitution¡¡is¡¡explained¡¡by¡¡a¡¡fictitious¡¡identification¡¡of¡¡the¡¡two¡¡individuals£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡derived¡¡from¡¡the¡¡analogy¡¡of¡¡the¡¡inheritance¡£¡¡This¡¡identification¡¡has¡¡been¡¡seen¡¡as¡¡it¡¡has¡¡been¡¡consciously¡¡worked¡¡out¡¡in¡¡the¡¡creation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡executor£»¡¡whose¡¡entire¡¡status¡¡is¡¡governed¡¡by¡¡it¡£¡¡It¡¡has¡¡bee

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