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The¡¡English¡¡heir¡¡is¡¡not¡¡a¡¡universal¡¡successor¡£¡¡Each¡¡and¡¡every¡¡parcel¡¡of¡¡land¡¡descends¡¡as¡¡a¡¡separate¡¡and¡¡specific¡¡tiling¡£¡¡Nevertheless£»¡¡in¡¡his¡¡narrower¡¡sphere¡¡he¡¡unquestionably¡¡represents¡¡the¡¡person¡¡of¡¡his¡¡ancestor¡£¡¡Different¡¡opinions¡¡have¡¡been¡¡held¡¡as¡¡to¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing¡¡was¡¡true¡¡in¡¡early¡¡German¡¡law¡£¡¡Dr¡£¡¡Laband¡¡says¡¡that¡¡it¡¡was£»¡¡/1/¡¡Sohm¡¡takes¡¡the¡¡opposite¡¡view¡£¡¡/2/¡¡It¡¡is¡¡commonly¡¡supposed¡¡that¡¡family¡¡ownership£»¡¡at¡¡least¡¡of¡¡land£»¡¡came¡¡before¡¡that¡¡of¡¡individuals¡¡in¡¡the¡¡German¡¡tribes£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡has¡¡been¡¡shown¡¡how¡¡naturally¡¡representation¡¡followed¡¡from¡¡a¡¡similar¡¡state¡¡of¡¡things¡¡in¡¡Rome¡£¡¡But¡¡it¡¡is¡¡needless¡¡to¡¡consider¡¡whether¡¡our¡¡law¡¡on¡¡this¡¡subject¡¡is¡¡of¡¡German¡¡or¡¡Roman¡¡origin£»¡¡as¡¡the¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡identification¡¡has¡¡clearly¡¡prevailed¡¡from¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡Glanvill¡¡to¡¡the¡¡present¡¡day¡£¡¡If¡¡it¡¡was¡¡not¡¡known¡¡to¡¡the¡¡Germans£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡plainly¡¡accounted¡¡for¡¡by¡¡the¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡law¡£¡¡If¡¡there¡¡was¡¡anything¡¡of¡¡the¡¡sort¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Salic¡¡law£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡no¡¡doubt¡¡due¡¡to¡¡natural¡¡causes¡¡similar¡¡to¡¡those¡¡which¡¡gave¡¡rise¡¡to¡¡the¡¡principle¡¡at¡¡Rome¡£¡¡But¡¡in¡¡either¡¡event¡¡I¡¡cannot¡¡doubt¡¡that¡¡the¡¡modern¡¡doctrine¡¡has¡¡taken¡¡a¡¡good¡¡deal¡¡of¡¡its¡¡form£»¡¡and¡¡perhaps¡¡some¡¡of¡¡its¡¡substance£»¡¡from¡¡the¡¡mature¡¡system¡¡£§347£§¡¡of¡¡the¡¡civilians£»¡¡in¡¡whose¡¡language¡¡it¡¡was¡¡so¡¡long¡¡expressed¡£¡¡For¡¡the¡¡same¡¡reasons¡¡that¡¡have¡¡just¡¡been¡¡mentioned£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡also¡¡needless¡¡to¡¡weigh¡¡the¡¡evidence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Anglo¡­Saxon¡¡sources£»¡¡although¡¡it¡¡seems¡¡tolerably¡¡clear¡¡from¡¡several¡¡passages¡¡in¡¡the¡¡laws¡¡that¡¡there¡¡was¡¡some¡¡identification¡£¡¡/1/

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When¡¡Glanvill¡¡wrote£»¡¡a¡¡little¡¡more¡¡than¡¡a¡¡century¡¡after¡¡the¡¡Conquest£»¡¡the¡¡heir¡¡was¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡warrant¡¡the¡¡reasonable¡¡gifts¡¡of¡¡his¡¡ancestor¡¡to¡¡the¡¡grantees¡¡and¡¡their¡¡heirs£»¡¡/3/¡¡and¡¡if¡¡the¡¡effects¡¡of¡¡the¡¡ancestor¡¡were¡¡insufficient¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡his¡¡debts£»¡¡the¡¡heir¡¡was¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡make¡¡up¡¡the¡¡deficiency¡¡from¡¡his¡¡own¡¡property¡£¡¡/4/¡¡Neither¡¡Glanvill¡¡nor¡¡his¡¡Scotch¡¡imitator£»¡¡the¡¡Regiam¡¡Majestatem£»¡¡/5/¡¡limits¡¡the¡¡liability¡¡to¡¡the¡¡amount¡¡of¡¡property¡¡inherited¡¡from¡¡the¡¡same¡¡source¡£¡¡This¡¡makes¡¡the¡¡identification¡¡of¡¡heir¡¡and¡¡ancestor¡¡as¡¡complete¡¡as¡¡that¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡law¡¡before¡¡such¡¡a¡¡limitation¡¡was¡¡introduced¡¡by¡¡Justinian¡£¡¡On¡¡the¡¡other¡¡hand£»¡¡a¡¡century¡¡£§348£§¡¡later£»¡¡it¡¡distinctly¡¡appears¡¡from¡¡Bracton£»¡¡/1/¡¡that¡¡the¡¡heir¡¡was¡¡only¡¡bound¡¡so¡¡far¡¡as¡¡property¡¡had¡¡descended¡¡to¡¡him£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡the¡¡early¡¡sources¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Continent£»¡¡Norman¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡other£»¡¡the¡¡same¡¡limitation¡¡appears¡£¡¡/2/¡¡The¡¡liabilities¡¡of¡¡the¡¡heir¡¡were¡¡probably¡¡shrinking¡£¡¡Britton¡¡and¡¡Fleta£»¡¡the¡¡imitators¡¡of¡¡Bracton£»¡¡and¡¡perhaps¡¡Bracton¡¡himself£»¡¡say¡¡that¡¡an¡¡heir¡¡is¡¡not¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡his¡¡ancestor's¡¡debt£»¡¡unless¡¡he¡¡be¡¡thereto¡¡especially¡¡bound¡¡by¡¡the¡¡deed¡¡of¡¡his¡¡ancestor¡£¡¡/3/¡¡The¡¡later¡¡law¡¡required¡¡that¡¡the¡¡heir¡¡should¡¡be¡¡mentioned¡¡if¡¡he¡¡was¡¡to¡¡be¡¡held¡£

But¡¡at¡¡all¡¡events¡¡the¡¡identification¡¡of¡¡heir¡¡and¡¡ancestor¡¡still¡¡approached¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡a¡¡universal¡¡succession¡¡in¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡Bracton£»¡¡as¡¡is¡¡shown¡¡by¡¡another¡¡statement¡¡of¡¡his¡£¡¡He¡¡asks¡¡if¡¡the¡¡testator¡¡can¡¡bequeath¡¡his¡¡rights¡¡of¡¡action£»¡¡and¡¡answers£»¡¡No£»¡¡so¡¡far¡¡as¡¡concerns¡¡debts¡¡not¡¡proved¡¡and¡¡recovered¡¡in¡¡the¡¡testator's¡¡life¡£¡¡But¡¡actions¡¡of¡¡that¡¡sort¡¡belong¡¡to¡¡the¡¡heirs£»¡¡and¡¡must¡¡be¡¡sued¡¡in¡¡the¡¡secular¡¡court£»¡¡for¡¡before¡¡they¡¡are¡¡so¡¡recovered¡¡in¡¡the¡¡proper¡¡court£»¡¡the¡¡executor¡¡cannot¡¡proceed¡¡for¡¡them¡¡in¡¡the¡¡ecclesiastical¡¡tribunal¡£¡¡/4/

This¡¡shows¡¡that¡¡the¡¡identification¡¡worked¡¡both¡¡ways¡£¡¡The¡¡heir¡¡was¡¡liable¡¡for¡¡the¡¡debts¡¡due¡¡from¡¡his¡¡ancestor£»¡¡and¡¡he¡¡could¡¡recover¡¡those¡¡which¡¡were¡¡due¡¡to¡¡him£»¡¡until¡¡£§349£§¡¡the¡¡executor¡¡took¡¡his¡¡place¡¡in¡¡the¡¡King's¡¡Courts£»¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡in¡¡those¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Church¡£¡¡Within¡¡the¡¡limits¡¡just¡¡explained¡¡the¡¡heir¡¡was¡¡also¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡warrant¡¡property¡¡sold¡¡by¡¡his¡¡ancestor¡¡to¡¡the¡¡purchaser¡¡and¡¡his¡¡heirs¡£¡¡/1/¡¡It¡¡is¡¡not¡¡necessary£»¡¡after¡¡this¡¡evidence¡¡that¡¡the¡¡modern¡¡heir¡¡began¡¡by¡¡representing¡¡his¡¡ancestor¡¡generally£»¡¡to¡¡seek¡¡for¡¡expressions¡¡in¡¡later¡¡books£»¡¡since¡¡his¡¡position¡¡has¡¡been¡¡limited¡£¡¡But¡¡just¡¡as¡¡we¡¡have¡¡seen¡¡that¡¡the¡¡executor¡¡is¡¡still¡¡said¡¡to¡¡represent¡¡the¡¡person¡¡of¡¡his¡¡testator£»¡¡the¡¡heir¡¡was¡¡said¡¡to¡¡represent¡¡the¡¡person¡¡of¡¡his¡¡ancestor¡¡in¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡Edward¡¡I¡£¡¡/2/¡¡So£»¡¡at¡¡a¡¡much¡¡later¡¡date£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡said¡¡that¡¡¡¨the¡¡heir¡¡is¡¡in¡¡representation¡¡in¡¡point¡¡of¡¡taking¡¡by¡¡inheritance¡¡eadam¡¡persona¡¡cum¡¡antecessore£»¡¨¡¡/3/¡¡the¡¡same¡¡persona¡¡as¡¡his¡¡ancestor¡£

A¡¡great¡¡judge£»¡¡who¡¡died¡¡but¡¡a¡¡few¡¡years¡¡ago£»¡¡repeats¡¡language¡¡which¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡equally¡¡familiar¡¡to¡¡the¡¡lawyers¡¡of¡¡Edward¡¡or¡¡of¡¡James¡£¡¡Baron¡¡Parke£»¡¡after¡¡laying¡¡down¡¡that¡¡in¡¡general¡¡a¡¡party¡¡is¡¡not¡¡required¡¡to¡¡make¡¡profert¡¡of¡¡an¡¡instrument¡¡to¡¡the¡¡possession¡¡of¡¡which¡¡he¡¡is¡¡not¡¡entitled£»¡¡says¡¡that¡¡there¡¡is¡¡an¡¡exception¡¡¡¨in¡¡the¡¡cases¡¡of¡¡heir¡¡and¡¡executor£»¡¡who¡¡may¡¡plead¡¡a¡¡release¡¡to¡¡the¡¡ancestor¡¡or¡¡testator¡¡whom¡¡they¡¡respectively¡¡represent£»¡¡so¡¡also¡¡with¡¡respect¡¡to¡¡several¡¡tortfeasors£»¡¡for¡¡in¡¡all¡¡these¡¡cases¡¡there¡¡is¡¡a¡¡privity¡¡between¡¡the¡¡parties¡¡which¡¡constitutes¡¡an¡¡identity¡¡of¡¡person¡£¡¨¡¡/4/

But¡¡this¡¡is¡¡not¡¡all¡£¡¡The¡¡identity¡¡of¡¡person¡¡was¡¡carried¡¡£§350£§¡¡farther¡¡still¡£¡¡If¡¡a¡¡man¡¡died¡¡leaving¡¡male¡¡children£»¡¡and¡¡owning¡¡land¡¡in¡¡fee£»¡¡it¡¡went¡¡to¡¡the¡¡oldest¡¡son¡¡alone£»¡¡but£»¡¡if¡¡he¡¡left¡¡only¡¡daughters£»¡¡it¡¡descended¡¡to¡¡t

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