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This¡¡last¡¡case¡¡suggests¡¡what¡¡is¡¡very¡¡forcibly¡¡impressed¡¡on¡¡any¡¡one¡¡who¡¡studies¡¡the¡¡cases£»that£»¡¡after¡¡all£»¡¡the¡¡most¡¡of¡¡decision¡¡is¡¡not¡¡any¡¡technical£»¡¡or¡¡even¡¡any¡¡general¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡contracts£»¡¡but¡¡a¡¡consideration¡¡of¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡the¡¡particular¡¡transaction¡¡as¡¡a¡¡practical¡¡matter¡£¡¡A¡¡promises¡¡B¡¡to¡¡do¡¡a¡¡day's¡¡work¡¡for¡¡two¡¡dollars£»¡¡and¡¡B¡¡promises¡¡A¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡two¡¡dollars¡¡for¡¡a¡¡day's¡¡work¡£¡¡There¡¡the¡¡two¡¡promises¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡performed¡¡at¡¡the¡¡same¡¡time¡£¡¡The¡¡work¡¡will¡¡take¡¡all¡¡day£»¡¡the¡¡payment¡¡half¡¡a¡¡minute¡£¡¡How¡¡are¡¡you¡¡to¡¡decide¡¡which¡¡is¡¡to¡¡be¡¡done¡¡first£»¡¡that¡¡is¡¡to¡¡say£»¡¡which¡¡promise¡¡is¡¡dependent¡¡upon¡¡performance¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡¡side£¿¡¡It¡¡is¡¡only¡¡by¡¡reference¡¡to¡¡the¡¡habits¡¡of¡¡the¡¡community¡¡and¡¡to¡¡convenience¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡not¡¡enough¡¡to¡¡say¡¡that¡¡on¡¡the¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡equivalency¡¡a¡¡man¡¡is¡¡not¡¡presumed¡¡to¡¡intend¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡for¡¡a¡¡thing¡¡until¡¡he¡¡has¡¡it¡£¡¡The¡¡work¡¡is¡¡payment¡¡for¡¡the¡¡money£»¡¡as¡¡much¡¡as¡¡the¡¡£§338£§¡¡money¡¡for¡¡the¡¡work£»¡¡and¡¡one¡¡must¡¡be¡¡paid¡¡in¡¡advance¡£¡¡The¡¡question¡¡is£»¡¡why£»¡¡if¡¡one¡¡man¡¡is¡¡not¡¡presumed¡¡to¡¡intend¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡money¡¡until¡¡he¡¡has¡¡money's¡¡worth£»¡¡the¡¡other¡¡is¡¡presumed¡¡to¡¡intend¡¡to¡¡give¡¡money's¡¡worth¡¡before¡¡he¡¡has¡¡money¡£¡¡An¡¡answer¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡obtained¡¡from¡¡any¡¡general¡¡theory¡£¡¡The¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡employers£»¡¡as¡¡a¡¡class£»¡¡can¡¡be¡¡trusted¡¡for¡¡wages¡¡more¡¡safely¡¡than¡¡the¡¡employed¡¡for¡¡their¡¡labor£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡employers¡¡have¡¡had¡¡the¡¡power¡¡and¡¡have¡¡been¡¡the¡¡law¡­¡¡makers£»¡¡or¡¡other¡¡considerations£»¡¡it¡¡matters¡¡not¡¡what£»¡¡have¡¡determined¡¡that¡¡the¡¡work¡¡is¡¡to¡¡be¡¡done¡¡first¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡grounds¡¡of¡¡decision¡¡are¡¡purely¡¡practical£»¡¡and¡¡can¡¡never¡¡be¡¡elicited¡¡from¡¡grammar¡¡or¡¡from¡¡logic¡£

A¡¡reference¡¡to¡¡practical¡¡considerations¡¡will¡¡be¡¡found¡¡to¡¡run¡¡all¡¡through¡¡the¡¡subject¡£¡¡Take¡¡another¡¡instance¡£¡¡The¡¡plaintiff¡¡declared¡¡on¡¡a¡¡mutual¡¡agreement¡¡between¡¡himself¡¡and¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡that¡¡he¡¡would¡¡sell£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡would¡¡buy£»¡¡certain¡¡Donskoy¡¡wool£»¡¡to¡¡be¡¡shipped¡¡by¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡¡at¡¡Odessa£»¡¡and¡¡delivered¡¡in¡¡England¡£¡¡Among¡¡the¡¡stipulations¡¡of¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡was¡¡one£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡names¡¡of¡¡the¡¡vessels¡¡should¡¡be¡¡declared¡¡as¡¡soon¡¡as¡¡the¡¡wools¡¡were¡¡shipped¡£¡¡The¡¡defence¡¡was£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡wool¡¡was¡¡bought£»¡¡with¡¡the¡¡knowledge¡¡of¡¡both¡¡parties£»¡¡for¡¡the¡¡purpose¡¡of¡¡reselling¡¡it¡¡in¡¡the¡¡course¡¡of¡¡the¡¡defendant's¡¡business£»¡¡that¡¡it¡¡was¡¡an¡¡article¡¡of¡¡fluctuating¡¡value£»¡¡and¡¡not¡¡salable¡¡until¡¡the¡¡names¡¡of¡¡the¡¡vessels¡¡in¡¡which¡¡it¡¡was¡¡shipped¡¡should¡¡have¡¡been¡¡declared¡¡according¡¡to¡¡the¡¡contract£»¡¡but¡¡that¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡¡did¡¡not¡¡declare¡¡the¡¡names¡¡of¡¡the¡¡vessels¡¡as¡¡agreed¡£¡¡The¡¡decision¡¡of¡¡the¡¡court¡¡was¡¡given¡¡by¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡greatest¡¡technical¡¡lawyers¡¡that¡¡ever¡¡lived£»¡¡Baron¡¡Parke£»¡¡yet¡¡he¡¡did¡¡not¡¡dream¡¡of¡¡giving¡¡any¡¡technical¡¡or¡¡merely¡¡logical¡¡reason¡¡for¡¡the¡¡decision£»¡¡but£»¡¡after¡¡stating¡¡in¡¡the¡¡above¡¡words¡¡the¡¡facts¡¡which¡¡were¡¡deemed¡¡material¡¡to¡¡the¡¡question¡¡£§339£§¡¡whether¡¡declaring¡¡the¡¡names¡¡of¡¡the¡¡vessels¡¡was¡¡a¡¡condition¡¡to¡¡the¡¡duty¡¡to¡¡accept£»¡¡stated¡¡the¡¡ground¡¡of¡¡decision¡¡thus£º¡¡¡¨Looking¡¡at¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡the¡¡contract£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡great¡¡importance¡¡of¡¡it¡¡to¡¡the¡¡object¡¡with¡¡which¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡was¡¡entered¡¡into¡¡with¡¡the¡¡knowledge¡¡of¡¡both¡¡parties£»¡¡we¡¡think¡¡it¡¡was¡¡a¡¡condition¡¡precedent¡£¡¨¡¡/1/

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When¡¡a¡¡right¡¡of¡¡this¡¡sort¡¡is¡¡recognized¡¡by¡¡the¡¡law£»¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡difficulty¡¡in¡¡transferring¡¡it£»¡¡or£»¡¡more¡¡accurately£»¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡difficulty¡¡in¡¡different¡¡persons¡¡successively¡¡enjoying¡¡similar¡¡rights¡¡in¡¡respect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡subject¡­matter¡£¡¡If¡¡A£»¡¡being¡¡the¡¡possessor¡¡of¡¡a¡¡horse¡¡or¡¡a¡¡field£»¡¡gives¡¡up¡¡the¡¡possession¡¡to¡¡B£»¡¡the¡¡rights¡¡which¡¡B¡¡acquires¡¡stand¡¡on¡¡the¡¡same¡¡ground¡¡as¡¡A's¡¡did¡¡before¡£¡¡The¡¡facts¡¡from¡¡which¡¡A's¡¡rights¡¡sprang¡¡have¡¡ceased¡¡to¡¡be¡¡true¡¡of¡¡A£»¡¡and¡¡are¡¡now¡¡true¡¡of¡¡B¡£¡¡The¡¡consequences¡¡attached¡¡by¡¡the¡¡law¡¡to¡¡those¡¡facts¡¡now¡¡exist¡¡for¡¡B£»¡¡as¡¡they¡¡did¡¡for¡¡A¡¡before¡£¡¡The¡¡situation¡¡of¡¡fact¡¡from¡¡which¡¡the¡¡rights¡¡spring¡¡is¡¡continuing¡¡one£»¡¡and¡¡any¡¡one¡¡who¡¡occupies¡¡it£»¡¡no¡¡matter¡¡how£»¡¡has¡¡the¡¡rights¡¡attached¡¡to¡¡it¡£¡¡But¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡possession¡¡possible¡¡of¡¡a¡¡contract¡£¡¡The¡¡£§341£§¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡a¡¡consideration¡¡was¡¡given¡¡yesterday¡¡by¡¡A¡¡to¡¡B£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡received¡¡in¡¡return£»¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡laid¡¡hold¡¡of¡¡by¡¡X£»¡¡and¡¡transferred¡¡from¡¡A¡¡to¡¡himself¡£¡¡The¡¡only¡¡thing¡¡can¡¡be¡¡transferred¡¡is¡¡the¡¡benefit¡¡or¡¡burden¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promise£»¡¡and¡¡how¡¡can¡¡they¡¡be¡¡separated¡¡from¡¡the¡¡facts¡¡which¡¡gave¡¡rise¡¡to¡¡them£¿¡¡How£»¡¡in¡¡short£»¡¡can¡¡a¡¡man¡¡sue¡¡or¡¡be¡¡sued¡¡on¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡in¡¡which¡¡he¡¡had¡¡no¡¡part£¿

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It¡¡will¡¡be¡¡observed¡¡that¡¡the¡¡problem¡¡is¡¡not¡¡coextensive¡¡with¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡field¡¡of¡¡rights¡£¡¡Some¡¡rights¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡transferred¡¡by¡¡any¡¡device¡¡or¡¡contrivance£»¡¡for¡¡instance£»¡¡a¡¡man's¡¡right¡¡a¡¡to¡¡bodily¡¡safety¡¡or¡¡reputation¡£¡¡Others¡¡again¡¡are¡¡incident¡¡to¡¡possession£»¡¡and¡¡within¡¡the¡¡limits¡¡of¡¡that¡¡conception¡¡no¡¡other¡¡is¡¡necessary¡£¡¡As¡¡Savigny¡¡said£»¡¡¡¨Succession¡¡does¡¡not¡¡apply¡¡to¡¡possession¡¡by¡¡itself¡£¡¨¡¡/1/

But¡¡the¡¡notion¡¡of¡¡possession¡¡will¡¡carry¡¡us¡¡but¡¡a¡¡very¡¡little¡¡way¡¡in¡¡our¡¡understanding¡¡of¡¡the¡¡modern¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡transfer¡£¡¡That¡¡theory¡¡depends¡¡very¡¡largely¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡notion¡¡of¡¡succession£»¡¡to¡¡use¡¡the¡¡word¡¡just¡¡quoted¡¡from¡¡Savigny£»¡¡and¡¡accordingly¡¡successions¡¡will¡¡be¡¡the¡¡subject¡¡of¡¡this¡¡and¡¡the¡¡following¡¡Lecture¡£¡¡I¡¡shall¡¡begin¡¡by¡¡explaining¡¡the¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡succession¡¡to¡¡persons¡¡deceased£»¡¡and¡¡after¡¡that¡¡is¡¡done¡¡shall¡¡pass¡¡to¡¡the¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡transfer¡¡between¡¡living¡¡£§342£§¡¡people£»¡¡and¡¡shall¡¡consider¡¡whether¡¡any¡¡relation¡¡can¡¡be¡¡established¡¡between¡¡the¡¡two¡£

The¡¡former¡¡is¡¡easily¡¡shown¡¡to¡¡be¡¡founded¡¡upon¡¡a¡¡fictitious¡¡identification¡¡between¡¡the¡¡deceased¡¡and¡¡his¡¡successor¡£¡¡And¡¡as¡¡a¡¡first¡¡step¡¡to¡¡the¡¡further¡¡discussion£»¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡for¡¡its¡¡own¡¡sake£»¡¡I¡¡shall¡¡briefly¡¡state¡¡the¡¡evidence¡¡touching¡¡the¡¡executor£»¡¡the¡¡heir£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡devisee¡£¡¡In¡¡order¡¡to¡¡understand¡¡the¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡our¡¡law¡¡with¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡the¡¡first¡¡of¡¡these£»¡¡at¡¡least£»¡¡scholars¡¡are¡¡agreed¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡consider¡¡the¡¡structure¡¡and¡¡position¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡family¡¡as¡¡it¡¡was¡¡in¡¡the¡¡infancy¡¡of¡¡Roman¡¡society¡£

Continental¡¡jurists¡¡have¡¡long¡¡been¡¡collecting¡¡the¡¡evidence¡¡that£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡earlier¡¡periods¡¡of¡¡Roman¡¡and¡¡German¡¡law¡¡alike£»¡¡the¡¡unit¡¡of¡¡society¡¡was¡¡the¡¡family¡£¡¡The¡¡Twelve¡¡Tables¡¡of¡¡Rome¡¡still¡¡recognize¡¡the¡¡interest¡¡of¡¡the¡¡inferior¡¡members¡¡of¡¡the¡¡family¡¡in¡¡the¡¡family¡¡property¡£¡¡Heirs¡¡are¡¡called¡¡sui¡¡heredes£»¡¡that¡¡is£»¡¡heirs¡¡of¡¡themselves¡¡or¡¡of¡¡their¡¡own¡¡property£»¡¡as¡¡is¡¡explained¡¡by¡¡Gaius¡£¡¡/1/¡¡Paulus¡¡says¡¡that¡¡they¡¡are¡¡regarded¡¡as¡¡owners¡¡in¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡sense£»¡¡even¡¡in¡¡the¡¡lifetime¡¡of¡¡their¡¡father£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡after¡¡his¡¡death¡¡they¡¡do¡¡not¡¡so¡¡much¡¡receive¡¡an¡¡inheritance¡¡as¡¡obtain¡¡the¡¡full¡¡power¡¡of¡¡dealing¡¡with¡¡their¡¡property¡£¡¡/2/

Starting¡¡from¡¡this¡¡point¡¡it¡¡is¡¡easy¡¡to¡¡understand¡¡the¡¡£§343£§¡¡succession¡¡of¡¡heirs¡¡to¡¡a¡¡deceased¡¡paterfamilias¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡system¡£¡¡If¡¡the¡¡family¡¡was¡¡the¡¡owner¡¡of¡¡the¡¡property¡¡administered¡¡by¡¡a¡¡paterfamilias£»¡¡its¡¡rights¡¡remained¡¡unaffected¡¡by¡¡the¡¡death¡¡of¡¡its¡¡temporary¡¡head¡£¡¡The¡¡family¡¡continued£»¡¡although¡¡the¡¡head¡¡died¡£¡¡And¡¡when£»¡¡probably¡¡by¡¡a¡¡gradual¡¡change£»¡¡/1/¡¡the¡¡paterfamilias¡¡came¡¡to¡¡be¡¡regarded¡¡as¡¡owner£»¡¡instead¡¡of¡¡a¡¡simple¡¡manager¡¡of¡¡the¡¡family¡¡rights£»¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡and¡¡continuity¡¡of¡¡those¡¡rights¡¡did¡¡not¡¡change¡¡with¡¡the¡¡title¡¡to¡¡them¡£¡¡The¡¡familia¡¡continued¡¡to¡¡the¡¡heirs¡¡as¡¡it¡¡was¡¡left¡¡by¡¡the¡¡ancestor¡£¡¡The¡¡heir¡¡succeeded¡¡not¡¡to¡¡the¡¡ownership¡¡of¡¡this¡¡or¡¡that¡¡thing¡¡separately£»¡¡but¡¡to¡¡the¡¡total¡¡hereditas¡¡or¡¡headship¡¡of¡¡the¡¡family¡¡with¡¡certain¡¡rights¡¡of¡¡property¡¡as¡¡incident£»¡¡/2/¡¡and¡¡of¡¡course¡¡he¡¡took¡¡this¡¡headship£»¡¡or¡¡right¡¡of¡¡representing¡¡the¡¡family¡¡interests£»¡¡subject¡¡to¡¡the¡¡modifications¡¡effected¡¡by¡¡the¡¡last¡¡manager¡£

The¡¡aggregate¡¡of¡¡the¡¡ancestor's¡¡rights¡¡and¡¡duties£»¡¡or£»¡¡to¡¡use¡¡the¡¡technical¡¡phrase£»¡¡the¡¡total¡¡persona¡¡sustained¡¡by¡¡him£»¡¡was¡¡easily¡¡separated¡¡from¡¡his¡¡natural¡¡personality¡£¡¡For¡¡this¡¡persona¡¡was¡¡but¡¡the¡¡aggregate¡¡of¡¡what¡¡had¡¡formerly¡¡been¡¡family¡¡rights¡¡and¡¡duties£»¡¡and¡¡was¡¡originally¡¡sustained¡¡by¡¡any¡¡individual¡¡only¡¡as¡¡the¡¡family¡¡head¡£¡¡Hence¡¡it¡¡was¡¡said¡¡to¡¡be¡¡continued¡¡by¡¡the¡¡inheritance£»¡¡/3/¡¡and¡¡when¡¡the¡¡heir¡¡assumed¡¡it¡¡he¡¡had¡¡his¡¡action¡¡in¡¡respect¡¡of¡¡injuries¡¡previously¡¡committed¡£¡¡/4/

Thus¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡heir¡¡came¡¡to¡¡be¡¡treated¡¡as¡¡identified¡¡with¡¡his¡¡ancestor¡¡for¡¡the¡¡purposes¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡£¡¡And¡¡thus¡¡it¡¡is¡¡clear¡¡how¡¡the¡¡impossible¡¡transfers¡¡which¡¡I¡¡seek¡¡to¡¡explain¡¡were¡¡accomplished¡¡in¡¡that¡¡instance¡£¡¡Rights¡¡to¡¡which¡¡B¡¡£§344£§¡¡as¡¡B¡¡could¡¡show¡¡no¡¡title£»¡¡h

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