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king¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡repugnant¡¡and¡¡void£»¡¡but¡¡only¡¡as¡¡giving¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡the¡¡option¡¡of¡¡avoiding¡¡it¡£¡¡/2/¡¡Even¡¡an¡¡express¡¡warranty¡¡of¡¡quality¡¡in¡¡sales¡¡does¡¡not¡¡have¡¡this¡¡effect£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡England£»¡¡indeed£»¡¡it¡¡does¡¡not¡¡allow¡¡the¡¡purchaser¡¡to¡¡rescind¡¡in¡¡case¡¡of¡¡breach¡£¡¡On¡¡this¡¡last¡¡point¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡Massachusetts¡¡is¡¡different¡£

The¡¡explanation¡¡has¡¡been¡¡offered¡¡of¡¡the¡¡English¡¡doctrine¡¡with¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡sales£»¡¡that£»¡¡when¡¡the¡¡title¡¡has¡¡passed£»¡¡the¡¡purchaser¡¡has¡¡already¡¡had¡¡some¡¡benefit¡¡from¡¡the¡¡contract£»¡¡and¡¡therefore¡¡cannot¡¡wholly¡¡replace¡¡the¡¡seller¡¡in¡¡statu¡¡quo£»¡¡as¡¡must¡¡be¡¡done¡¡when¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡rescinded¡£¡¡/3/¡¡This¡¡reasoning¡¡£§332£§¡¡seems¡¡doubtful£»¡¡even¡¡to¡¡show¡¡that¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡not¡¡voidable£»¡¡but¡¡has¡¡no¡¡bearing¡¡on¡¡the¡¡argument¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡void¡£¡¡For¡¡if¡¡the¡¡contract

is¡¡void£»¡¡the¡¡title¡¡does¡¡not¡¡pass¡£

It¡¡might¡¡be¡¡said¡¡that¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡repugnancy¡¡in¡¡the¡¡charterer's¡¡promise£»¡¡because¡¡he¡¡only¡¡promises¡¡to¡¡load¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡ship£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡the¡¡words¡¡¡¨now¡¡in¡¡the¡¡port¡¡of¡¡Amsterdam¡¨¡¡are¡¡merely¡¡matter¡¡of¡¡history¡¡when¡¡the¡¡time¡¡for¡¡loading¡¡comes£»¡¡and¡¡no¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡description¡¡of¡¡the¡¡vessel¡¡which¡¡he¡¡promised¡¡to¡¡load¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡moment¡¡those¡¡words¡¡are¡¡decided¡¡to¡¡be¡¡essential¡¡they¡¡become¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡description£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡is¡¡to¡¡load¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡vessel¡¡which¡¡is¡¡named¡¡the¡¡Martaban£»¡¡and¡¡which¡¡was¡¡in¡¡the¡¡port¡¡of¡¡Amsterdam¡¡at¡¡the¡¡date¡¡of¡¡the¡¡contract¡£¡¡So¡¡interpreted£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡repugnant¡£

Probably¡¡the¡¡true¡¡solution¡¡is¡¡to¡¡be¡¡found¡¡in¡¡practical¡¡considerations¡£¡¡At¡¡any¡¡rate£»¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡is¡¡that¡¡the¡¡law¡¡has¡¡established¡¡three¡¡degrees¡¡in¡¡the¡¡effect¡¡of¡¡repugnancy¡£¡¡If¡¡one¡¡of¡¡the¡¡repugnant¡¡terms¡¡is¡¡wholly¡¡insignificant£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡simply¡¡disregarded£»¡¡or¡¡at¡¡most¡¡will¡¡only¡¡found¡¡a¡¡claim¡¡for¡¡damages¡£¡¡The¡¡law¡¡would¡¡be¡¡loath¡¡to¡¡hold¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡void¡¡for¡¡repugnancy¡¡in¡¡present¡¡terms£»¡¡when¡¡if¡¡the¡¡same¡¡terms¡¡were¡¡only¡¡promised¡¡a¡¡failure¡¡of¡¡one¡¡of¡¡them¡¡would¡¡not¡¡warrant¡¡a¡¡refusal¡¡to¡¡perform¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡¡side¡£¡¡If£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡¡hand£»¡¡both¡¡are¡¡of¡¡the¡¡extremest¡¡importance£»¡¡so¡¡that¡¡to¡¡enforce¡¡the¡¡rest¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡or¡¡bargain¡¡without¡¡one¡¡of¡¡them¡¡would¡¡not¡¡merely¡¡deprive¡¡one¡¡party¡¡of¡¡a¡¡stipulated¡¡incident£»¡¡but¡¡would¡¡force¡¡a¡¡substantially¡¡different¡¡bargain¡¡on¡¡him£»¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡will¡¡be¡¡void¡£¡¡There¡¡is¡¡an¡¡intermediate¡¡class¡¡of¡¡cases¡¡where¡¡it¡¡is¡¡left¡¡to¡¡the¡¡disappointed¡¡party¡¡to¡¡decide¡£¡¡But¡¡as¡¡the¡¡lines¡¡between¡¡the¡¡three¡¡are¡¡of¡¡this¡¡vague¡¡kind£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡surprising¡¡that¡¡they¡¡have¡¡been¡¡differently¡¡drawn¡¡in¡¡different¡¡jurisdictions¡£

£§333£§¡¡The¡¡examples¡¡which¡¡have¡¡been¡¡given¡¡of¡¡undertakings¡¡for¡¡a¡¡present¡¡state¡¡of¡¡facts¡¡have¡¡been¡¡confined¡¡to¡¡those¡¡touching¡¡the¡¡present¡¡condition¡¡of¡¡the¡¡subject¡­¡¡matter¡¡of¡¡the¡¡contract¡£¡¡Of¡¡course¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡such¡¡limit¡¡to¡¡the¡¡scope¡¡of¡¡their¡¡employment¡£¡¡A¡¡contract¡¡may¡¡warrant¡¡the¡¡existence¡¡of¡¡other¡¡facts¡¡as¡¡well£»¡¡and¡¡examples¡¡of¡¡this¡¡kind¡¡probably¡¡might¡¡be¡¡found¡¡or¡¡imagined¡¡where¡¡it¡¡would¡¡be¡¡clear¡¡that¡¡the¡¡only¡¡effect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡warranty¡¡was¡¡to¡¡attach¡¡a¡¡condition¡¡to¡¡the¡¡contract£»¡¡in¡¡favor¡¡of¡¡the¡¡other¡¡side£»¡¡and¡¡where¡¡the¡¡question¡¡would¡¡be¡¡avoided¡¡whether¡¡there¡¡was¡¡not¡¡something¡¡more¡¡than¡¡a¡¡condition£»a¡¡repugnancy¡¡which¡¡prevented¡¡the¡¡formation¡¡of¡¡any¡¡contract¡¡at¡¡all¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡preceding¡¡illustrations¡¡are¡¡enough¡¡for¡¡the¡¡present¡¡purpose¡£

We¡¡may¡¡now¡¡pass¡¡from¡¡undertakings¡¡that¡¡certain¡¡facts¡¡are¡¡true¡¡at¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡making¡¡the¡¡contract£»¡¡to¡¡undertakings¡¡that¡¡certain¡¡facts¡¡shall¡¡be¡¡true¡¡at¡¡some¡¡later¡¡time£»that¡¡is£»¡¡to¡¡promises¡¡properly¡¡so¡¡called¡£¡¡The¡¡question¡¡is¡¡when¡¡performance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡on¡¡one¡¡side¡¡is¡¡a¡¡condition¡¡to¡¡the¡¡obligation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡£¡¡In¡¡practice£»¡¡this¡¡question¡¡is¡¡apt¡¡to¡¡be¡¡treated¡¡as¡¡identical¡¡with¡¡another£»¡¡which£»¡¡as¡¡has¡¡been¡¡shown¡¡earlier£»¡¡is¡¡a¡¡distinct¡¡point£»¡¡namely£»¡¡when¡¡performance¡¡on¡¡one¡¡side¡¡is¡¡a¡¡condition¡¡of¡¡the¡¡right¡¡to¡¡call¡¡for¡¡performance¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡of¡¡course¡¡conceivable¡¡that¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡should¡¡be¡¡limited¡¡to¡¡the¡¡case¡¡of¡¡performance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡things¡¡promised¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡¡side£»¡¡and¡¡yet¡¡that¡¡a¡¡failure¡¡of¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡should¡¡not¡¡warrant¡¡a¡¡rescission¡¡of¡¡the¡¡contract¡£¡¡Wherever¡¡one¡¡party¡¡has¡¡already¡¡received¡¡a¡¡substantial¡¡benefit¡¡under¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡of¡¡a¡¡kind¡¡which¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡restored£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡too¡¡late¡¡to¡¡rescind£»¡¡however¡¡important¡¡a¡¡breach¡¡may¡¡be¡¡committed¡¡later¡¡by¡¡the¡¡other¡¡side¡£¡¡Yet¡¡he¡¡may¡¡be¡¡£§334£§¡¡excused¡¡from¡¡going¡¡farther¡£¡¡Suppose¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡made¡¡for¡¡a¡¡month's¡¡labor£»¡¡ten¡¡dollars¡¡to¡¡be¡¡paid¡¡down£»¡¡not¡¡to¡¡be¡¡recovered¡¡except¡¡in¡¡case¡¡of¡¡rescission¡¡for¡¡the¡¡laborer's¡¡fault£»¡¡and¡¡thirty¡¡dollars¡¡at¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡the¡¡month¡£¡¡If¡¡the¡¡laborer¡¡should¡¡wrongfully¡¡stop¡¡work¡¡at¡¡the¡¡end¡¡of¡¡a¡¡fortnight£»¡¡I¡¡do¡¡not¡¡suppose¡¡that¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡could¡¡be¡¡rescinded£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡the¡¡ten¡¡dollars¡¡could¡¡be¡¡recovered¡¡as¡¡money¡¡had¡¡and¡¡received£»¡¡/1/¡¡but£»¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡¡hand£»¡¡the¡¡employer¡¡would¡¡not¡¡be¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡the¡¡thirty¡¡dollars£»¡¡and¡¡of¡¡course¡¡he¡¡could¡¡sue¡¡for¡¡damages¡¡on¡¡the¡¡contract¡£¡¡/2/

But£»¡¡for¡¡the¡¡most¡¡part£»¡¡a¡¡breach¡¡of¡¡promise¡¡which¡¡discharges¡¡the¡¡promisee¡¡from¡¡further¡¡performance¡¡on¡¡his¡¡side¡¡will¡¡also¡¡warrant¡¡rescission£»¡¡so¡¡that¡¡no¡¡great¡¡harm¡¡is¡¡done¡¡by¡¡the¡¡popular¡¡confusion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡two¡¡questions¡£¡¡Where¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡to¡¡perform¡¡on¡¡one¡¡side¡¡is¡¡limited¡¡to¡¡the¡¡case¡¡of¡¡performance¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other£»¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡generally¡¡conditioned¡¡on¡¡it¡¡also¡£¡¡In¡¡what¡¡follows£»¡¡I¡¡shall¡¡take¡¡up¡¡the¡¡cases¡¡which¡¡I¡¡wish¡¡to¡¡notice¡¡without¡¡stopping¡¡to¡¡consider¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡was¡¡in¡¡a¡¡strict¡¡sense¡¡conditioned¡¡on¡¡performance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡on¡¡one¡¡side£»¡¡or¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡true¡¡construction¡¡was¡¡merely¡¡that¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡¡side¡¡was¡¡limited¡¡to¡¡that¡¡event¡£

Now£»¡¡how¡¡do¡¡we¡¡settle¡¡whether¡¡such¡¡a¡¡condition¡¡exists£¿¡¡It¡¡is¡¡easy¡¡to¡¡err¡¡by¡¡seeking¡¡too¡¡eagerly¡¡for¡¡simplicity£»¡¡and¡¡by¡¡striving¡¡too¡¡hard¡¡to¡¡reduce¡¡all¡¡cases¡¡to¡¡artificial¡¡presumptions£»¡¡which¡¡are¡¡less¡¡obvious¡¡than¡¡the¡¡decisions¡¡which¡¡they¡¡are¡¡supposed¡¡to¡¡explain¡£¡¡The¡¡foundation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡matter¡¡is£»¡¡after¡¡all£»¡¡good¡¡sense£»¡¡as¡¡the¡¡courts¡¡have¡¡often¡¡said¡£¡¡The¡¡law¡¡means¡¡to¡¡carry¡¡out¡¡the¡¡intention¡¡of¡¡the¡¡parties£»¡¡and£»¡¡so¡¡far¡¡as¡¡they¡¡have¡¡not¡¡provided¡¡£§335£§¡¡for¡¡the¡¡event¡¡which¡¡has¡¡happened£»¡¡it¡¡has¡¡to¡¡say¡¡what¡¡they¡¡naturally¡¡would¡¡have¡¡intended¡¡if¡¡their¡¡minds¡¡had¡¡been¡¡turned¡¡to¡¡the¡¡point¡£¡¡It¡¡will¡¡be¡¡found¡¡that¡¡decisions¡¡based¡¡on¡¡the¡¡direct¡¡implications¡¡of¡¡the¡¡language¡¡used£»¡¡and¡¡others¡¡based¡¡upon¡¡a¡¡remoter¡¡inference¡¡of¡¡what¡¡the¡¡parties¡¡must¡¡have¡¡meant£»¡¡or¡¡would¡¡have¡¡said¡¡if¡¡they¡¡had¡¡spoken£»¡¡shade¡¡into¡¡each¡¡other¡¡by¡¡imperceptible¡¡degrees¡£

Mr¡£¡¡Langdell¡¡has¡¡called¡¡attention¡¡to¡¡a¡¡very¡¡important¡¡principle£»¡¡and¡¡one¡¡which£»¡¡no¡¡doubt£»¡¡throws¡¡light¡¡on¡¡many¡¡decisions¡£¡¡/1/¡¡This¡¡is£»¡¡that£»¡¡where¡¡you¡¡have¡¡a¡¡bilateral¡¡contract£»¡¡while¡¡the¡¡consideration¡¡of¡¡each¡¡promise¡¡is¡¡the¡¡counter¡¡promise£»¡¡yet¡¡prima¡¡facie¡¡the¡¡payment¡¡for¡¡performance¡¡of¡¡one¡¡is¡¡performance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡other¡£¡¡The¡¡performance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡other¡¡party¡¡is¡¡what¡¡each¡¡means¡¡to¡¡have¡¡in¡¡return¡¡for¡¡his¡¡own¡£¡¡If¡¡A¡¡promises¡¡a¡¡barrel¡¡of¡¡flour¡¡to¡¡B£»¡¡and¡¡B¡¡promises¡¡him¡¡ten¡¡dollars¡¡for¡¡it£»¡¡A¡¡means¡¡to¡¡have¡¡the¡¡ten¡¡dollars¡¡for¡¡his¡¡flour£»¡¡and¡¡B¡¡means¡¡to¡¡have¡¡the¡¡flour¡¡for¡¡his¡¡ten¡¡dollars¡£¡¡If¡¡no¡¡time¡¡is¡¡set¡¡for¡¡either¡¡act£»¡¡neither¡¡can¡¡call¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡¡to¡¡perform¡¡without¡¡being¡¡ready¡¡at¡¡the¡¡same¡¡time¡¡himself¡£

But¡¡this¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡equivalency¡¡is¡¡not¡¡the¡¡only¡¡principle¡¡to¡¡be¡¡drawn¡¡even¡¡from¡¡the¡¡form¡¡of¡¡contracts£»¡¡without¡¡considering¡¡their¡¡subject¡­matter£»¡¡and¡¡of¡¡course¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡offered¡¡as¡¡such¡¡in¡¡Mr¡£¡¡Langdell's¡¡work¡£

Another¡¡very¡¡clear¡¡one¡¡is¡¡found¡¡in¡¡contracts¡¡for¡¡the¡¡sale¡¡or¡¡lease¡¡of¡¡a¡¡thing£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡like¡£¡¡Here¡¡the¡¡qualities¡¡or¡¡characteristics¡¡which¡¡the¡¡owner¡¡promises¡¡that¡¡the¡¡thing¡¡furnished¡¡shall¡¡possess£»¡¡go¡¡to¡¡describe¡¡the¡¡thing¡¡which¡¡the¡¡buyer¡¡promises¡¡to¡¡accept¡£¡¡If¡¡any¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promised¡¡traits¡¡are¡¡wanting¡¡in¡¡the¡¡thing¡¡tendered£»¡¡the¡¡buyer¡¡may¡¡refuse¡¡to¡¡accept£»¡¡not¡¡merely¡¡on¡¡the¡¡ground¡¡that¡¡he¡¡has¡¡not¡¡£§336£§¡¡been¡¡offered¡¡the¡¡equivalent¡¡for¡¡keeping¡¡his¡¡promise£»¡¡but¡¡also¡¡on¡¡the¡¡ground¡¡that¡¡he¡¡never¡¡promised¡¡to¡¡accept¡¡what¡¡is¡¡offered¡¡him¡£¡¡/1/¡¡It¡¡has¡¡been¡¡seen¡¡that£»¡¡where¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡contains¡¡a¡¡statement¡¡touching¡¡the¡¡condition¡¡of¡¡the¡¡thing¡¡at¡¡an¡¡earlier¡¡time¡¡than¡¡the¡¡moment¡¡for¡¡its¡¡acceptance£»¡¡the¡¡past¡¡condition¡¡may¡¡not¡¡always¡¡be¡¡held¡¡to¡¡enter¡¡into¡¡the¡¡description¡¡of¡¡the¡¡thing¡¡to¡¡be¡¡accepted¡£¡¡But¡¡no¡¡such¡¡escape¡¡is¡¡possible¡¡here¡£¡¡Nevertheless¡¡there¡¡are¡¡limits¡¡to¡¡the¡¡right¡¡of¡¡refusal¡¡even¡¡in¡¡the¡¡present¡¡class¡¡of¡¡cases¡£¡¡If¡¡the¡¡thing¡¡promised¡¡is¡¡specific£»¡¡the¡¡preponderance¡¡of¡¡that¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡description¡¡which¡¡identifies¡¡the¡¡object¡¡by¡¡reference¡¡to¡¡the¡¡senses¡¡is¡¡sometimes¡¡strikingly¡¡illustrated¡£¡¡One¡¡case¡¡has¡¡gone¡¡so¡¡far¡¡as¡¡to¡¡hold¡¡that¡¡performance¡¡of¡¡an¡¡executory¡¡contract¡¡to¡¡purchase¡¡a¡¡specific¡¡thing¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡refused¡¡because¡¡it¡¡fails¡¡to¡¡come¡¡up¡¡to¡¡the¡¡warranted¡¡quality¡£¡¡/2/

Another¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡dependency¡¡to¡¡be¡¡drawn¡¡from¡¡the¡¡form¡¡of¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡itself¡¡is£»¡¡that¡¡performance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡on¡¡one¡¡side¡¡may¡¡be¡¡manifestly¡¡intended¡¡to¡¡furnish¡¡the¡¡means¡¡for¡¡performing¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡£¡¡If¡¡a¡¡tenant¡¡should¡¡promise¡¡to¡¡make¡¡repairs£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡landlord¡¡should¡¡promise¡¡to¡¡furnish¡¡him¡¡wood¡¡for¡¡the¡¡purpose£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡believed¡¡that¡¡at¡¡the¡¡present¡¡day£»¡¡whatever¡¡may¡¡have¡¡been¡¡the¡¡old¡¡decisions£»¡¡the¡¡tenant's¡¡duty¡¡to¡¡repair¡¡would¡¡be¡¡dependent¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡landlord's¡¡furnishing¡¡the¡¡material¡¡when¡¡required¡£¡¡/3/

£§337£§¡¡Another¡¡case¡¡of¡¡a¡¡somewhat¡¡exceptional¡¡kind¡¡is¡¡where¡¡a¡¡party¡¡to¡¡a¡¡bilateral¡¡contract¡¡agrees¡¡to¡¡do¡¡certain¡¡things¡¡and¡¡to¡¡give¡¡security¡¡for¡¡his¡¡performance¡£¡¡Here¡¡it¡¡is¡¡manifest¡¡good¡­sense¡¡to¡¡hold¡¡giving¡¡the¡¡security¡¡a¡¡condition¡¡of¡¡performance¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡¡side£»¡¡if¡¡it¡¡be¡¡possible¡£¡¡For¡¡the¡¡requirement¡¡of¡¡security¡¡shows¡¡that¡¡the¡¡party¡¡requiring¡¡it¡¡was¡¡not¡¡c

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