Ì«×ÓүС˵Íø > Ó¢Óïµç×ÓÊé > the common law >

µÚ53½Ú

the common law-µÚ53½Ú

С˵£º the common law ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ4000×Ö

°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·­Ò³£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡



nstruction¡¡that¡¡exceptional¡¡risks¡¡were¡¡intended¡¡to¡¡be¡¡assumed¡£¡¡The¡¡foregoing¡¡analysis¡¡is¡¡believed¡¡to¡¡show¡¡that¡¡the¡¡result¡¡which¡¡has¡¡been¡¡reached¡¡by¡¡the¡¡courts¡¡on¡¡grounds¡¡of¡¡practical¡¡good¡¡sense£»¡¡falls¡¡in¡¡with¡¡the¡¡true¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡contract¡¡under¡¡the¡¡common¡¡law¡£

The¡¡discussion¡¡of¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡has¡¡led¡¡me¡¡to¡¡analyze¡¡contract¡¡and¡¡the¡¡consequences¡¡of¡¡contract¡¡somewhat¡¡in¡¡advance¡¡of¡¡their¡¡place¡£¡¡I¡¡must¡¡say¡¡a¡¡word¡¡more¡¡concerning¡¡the¡¡facts¡¡which¡¡constitute¡¡a¡¡promise¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡laid¡¡down£»¡¡with¡¡theoretical¡¡truth£»¡¡that£»¡¡besides¡¡the¡¡assurance¡¡or¡¡offer¡¡on¡¡the¡¡one¡¡side£»¡¡there¡¡must¡¡be¡¡an¡¡acceptance¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡£¡¡But¡¡I¡¡find¡¡it¡¡hard¡¡to¡¡think¡¡of¡¡a¡¡case¡¡where¡¡a¡¡simple¡¡contract¡¡fails¡¡to¡¡be¡¡made£»¡¡which¡¡could¡¡not¡¡be¡¡accounted¡¡for¡¡on¡¡other¡¡grounds£»¡¡generally¡¡by¡¡the¡¡want¡¡of¡¡relation¡¡between¡¡assurance¡¡or¡¡offer¡¡and¡¡consideration¡¡as¡¡reciprocal¡¡inducements¡¡each¡¡of¡¡the¡¡other¡£¡¡Acceptance¡¡of¡¡an¡¡offer¡¡usually¡¡follows¡¡by¡¡mere¡¡implication¡¡from¡¡the¡¡furnishing¡¡of¡¡the¡¡consideration£»¡¡and¡¡inasmuch¡¡as¡¡by¡¡our¡¡law¡¡an¡¡accepted¡¡offer£»¡¡or¡¡promise£»¡¡until¡¡the¡¡consideration¡¡is¡¡furnished£»¡¡stands¡¡on¡¡no¡¡different¡¡footing¡¡from¡¡an¡¡offer¡¡not¡¡yet¡¡accepted£»¡¡each¡¡being¡¡subject¡¡to¡¡revocation¡¡until¡¡that¡¡time£»¡¡and¡¡each¡¡continuing¡¡£§304£§¡¡until¡¡then¡¡unless¡¡it¡¡has¡¡expired¡¡or¡¡has¡¡been¡¡revoked£»¡¡the¡¡question¡¡of¡¡acceptance¡¡is¡¡rarely¡¡of¡¡practical¡¡importance¡£

Assuming¡¡that¡¡the¡¡general¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡consideration¡¡and¡¡promise¡¡is¡¡understood£»¡¡some¡¡questions¡¡peculiar¡¡to¡¡bilateral¡¡contracts¡¡remain¡¡to¡¡be¡¡considered¡£¡¡These¡¡concern¡¡the¡¡sufficiency¡¡of¡¡the¡¡consideration¡¡and¡¡the¡¡moment¡¡when¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡made¡£

A¡¡promise¡¡may¡¡be¡¡a¡¡consideration¡¡for¡¡a¡¡promise£»¡¡although¡¡not¡¡every¡¡promise¡¡for¡¡every¡¡other¡£¡¡It¡¡may¡¡be¡¡doubted¡¡whether¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡to¡¡make¡¡a¡¡gift¡¡of¡¡one¡¡hundred¡¡dollars¡¡would¡¡be¡¡supported¡¡by¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡to¡¡accept¡¡it¡£¡¡But¡¡in¡¡a¡¡case¡¡of¡¡mutual¡¡promises¡¡respectively¡¡to¡¡transfer¡¡and¡¡to¡¡accept¡¡unpaid¡¡shares¡¡in¡¡a¡¡railway¡¡company£»¡¡it¡¡has¡¡been¡¡held¡¡that¡¡a¡¡binding¡¡contract¡¡was¡¡made¡£¡¡Here¡¡one¡¡party¡¡agrees¡¡to¡¡part¡¡with¡¡something¡¡which¡¡may¡¡prove¡¡valuable£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡other¡¡to¡¡assume¡¡a¡¡liability¡¡which¡¡may¡¡prove¡¡onerous¡£¡¡/1/

But¡¡now¡¡suppose¡¡that¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡element¡¡of¡¡uncertainty¡¡except¡¡in¡¡the¡¡minds¡¡of¡¡the¡¡parties¡£¡¡Take£»¡¡for¡¡instance£»¡¡a¡¡wager¡¡on¡¡a¡¡past¡¡horse¡­race¡£¡¡It¡¡has¡¡been¡¡thought¡¡that¡¡this¡¡would¡¡amount¡¡to¡¡an¡¡absolute¡¡promise¡¡on¡¡one¡¡side£»¡¡and¡¡no¡¡promise¡¡at¡¡all¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other¡£¡¡/2/¡¡But¡¡this¡¡does¡¡not¡¡seem¡¡to¡¡me¡¡sound¡£¡¡Contracts¡¡are¡¡dealings¡¡between¡¡men£»¡¡by¡¡which¡¡they¡¡make¡¡arrangements¡¡for¡¡the¡¡future¡£¡¡In¡¡making¡¡such¡¡arrangements¡¡the¡¡important¡¡thing¡¡is£»¡¡not¡¡what¡¡is¡¡objectively¡¡true£»¡¡but¡¡what¡¡the¡¡parties¡¡know¡£¡¡Any¡¡present¡¡fact¡¡which¡¡is¡¡unknown¡¡to¡¡the¡¡parties¡¡is¡¡just¡¡as¡¡uncertain¡¡for¡¡the¡¡purposes¡¡of¡¡making¡¡an¡¡arrangement¡¡at¡¡this¡¡moment£»¡¡as¡¡any¡¡future¡¡fact¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡therefore¡¡a¡¡detriment¡¡to¡¡undertake¡¡to¡¡be¡¡ready¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡if¡¡the¡¡event¡¡turns¡¡out¡¡not¡¡£§305£§¡¡to¡¡have¡¡been¡¡as¡¡expected¡£¡¡This¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡be¡¡the¡¡true¡¡explanation¡¡why¡¡forbearance¡¡to¡¡sue¡¡upon¡¡a¡¡claim¡¡believed¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡¡to¡¡be¡¡good¡¡is¡¡a¡¡sufficient¡¡consideration£»¡¡although¡¡the¡¡claim¡¡was¡¡bad¡¡in¡¡fact£»¡¡and¡¡known¡¡by¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡to¡¡be¡¡bad¡£¡¡/1/¡¡Were¡¡this¡¡view¡¡unsound£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡hard¡¡to¡¡see¡¡how¡¡wagers¡¡on¡¡any¡¡future¡¡event£»¡¡except¡¡a¡¡miracle£»¡¡could¡¡be¡¡sustained¡£¡¡For¡¡if¡¡the¡¡happening¡¡or¡¡not¡¡happening¡¡of¡¡the¡¡event¡¡is¡¡subject¡¡to¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡causation£»¡¡the¡¡only¡¡uncertainty¡¡about¡¡it¡¡is¡¡in¡¡our¡¡foresight£»¡¡not¡¡in¡¡its¡¡happening¡£

The¡¡question¡¡when¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡made¡¡arises¡¡for¡¡the¡¡most¡¡part¡¡with¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡bilateral¡¡contracts¡¡by¡¡letter£»¡¡the¡¡doubt¡¡being¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡complete¡¡at¡¡the¡¡moment¡¡when¡¡the¡¡return¡¡promise¡¡is¡¡put¡¡into¡¡the¡¡post£»¡¡or¡¡at¡¡the¡¡moment¡¡when¡¡it¡¡is¡¡received¡£¡¡If¡¡convenience¡¡preponderates¡¡in¡¡favor¡¡of¡¡either¡¡view£»¡¡that¡¡is¡¡a¡¡sufficient¡¡reason¡¡for¡¡its¡¡adoption¡£¡¡So¡¡far¡¡as¡¡merely¡¡logical¡¡grounds¡¡go£»¡¡the¡¡most¡¡ingenious¡¡argument¡¡in¡¡favor¡¡of¡¡the¡¡later¡¡moment¡¡is¡¡Professor¡¡Langdell's¡£¡¡According¡¡to¡¡him¡¡the¡¡conclusion¡¡follows¡¡from¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡the¡¡consideration¡¡which¡¡makes¡¡the¡¡offer¡¡binding¡¡is¡¡itself¡¡a¡¡promise¡£¡¡Every¡¡promise£»¡¡he¡¡says£»¡¡is¡¡an¡¡offer¡¡before¡¡it¡¡is¡¡a¡¡promise£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡essence¡¡of¡¡an¡¡offer¡¡is¡¡that¡¡it¡¡should¡¡be¡¡communicated¡£¡¡/2/¡¡But¡¡this¡¡reasoning¡¡seems¡¡unsound¡£¡¡When£»¡¡as¡¡in¡¡the¡¡case¡¡supposed£»¡¡the¡¡consideration¡¡for¡¡the¡¡return¡¡promise¡¡has¡¡been¡¡put¡¡into¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡the¡¡offeree¡¡and¡¡the¡¡return¡¡promise¡¡has¡¡been¡¡accepted¡¡in¡¡advance£»¡¡there¡¡is¡¡not¡¡an¡¡instant£»¡¡either¡¡in¡¡time¡¡or¡¡logic£»¡¡when¡¡the¡¡return¡¡promise¡¡is¡¡an¡¡offer¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡and¡¡a¡¡term¡¡of¡¡a¡¡binding¡¡contract¡¡as¡¡soon¡¡as¡¡it¡¡is¡¡anything¡£¡¡An¡¡offer¡¡is¡¡a¡¡revocable¡¡and¡¡unaccepted

communication¡¡of¡¡willingness¡¡to¡¡promise¡£¡¡£§306£§¡¡When¡¡an¡¡offer¡¡of¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡bilateral¡¡contract¡¡has¡¡been¡¡made£»¡¡the¡¡same¡¡contract¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡offered¡¡by¡¡the¡¡other¡¡side¡£¡¡The¡¡so¡­called¡¡offer¡¡would¡¡neither¡¡be¡¡revocable¡¡nor¡¡unaccepted¡£¡¡It¡¡would¡¡complete¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡as¡¡soon¡¡as¡¡made¡£

If¡¡it¡¡be¡¡said¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡of¡¡the¡¡essence¡¡of¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡to¡¡be¡¡communicated£»¡¡whether¡¡it¡¡goes¡¡through¡¡the¡¡stage¡¡of¡¡offer¡¡or¡¡not£»¡¡meaning¡¡by¡¡communicated¡¡brought¡¡to¡¡the¡¡actual¡¡knowledge¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promisee£»¡¡the¡¡law¡¡is¡¡believed¡¡to¡¡be¡¡otherwise¡£¡¡A¡¡covenant¡¡is¡¡binding¡¡when¡¡it¡¡is¡¡delivered¡¡and¡¡accepted£»¡¡whether¡¡it¡¡is¡¡read¡¡or¡¡not¡£¡¡On¡¡the¡¡same¡¡principle£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡believed¡¡that£»¡¡whenever¡¡the¡¡obligation¡¡is¡¡to¡¡be¡¡entered¡¡into¡¡by¡¡a¡¡tangible¡¡sign£»¡¡as£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡case¡¡supposed£»¡¡by¡¡letter¡¡containing¡¡the¡¡return¡¡promise£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡consideration¡¡for¡¡and¡¡assent¡¡to¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡are¡¡already¡¡given£»¡¡the¡¡only¡¡question¡¡is¡¡when¡¡the¡¡tangible¡¡sign¡¡is¡¡sufficiently¡¡put¡¡into¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promisee¡£¡¡I¡¡cannot¡¡believe¡¡that£»¡¡if¡¡the¡¡letter¡¡had¡¡been¡¡delivered¡¡to¡¡the¡¡promisee¡¡and¡¡was¡¡then¡¡snatched¡¡from¡¡his¡¡hands¡¡before¡¡he¡¡had¡¡read¡¡it£»¡¡there¡¡would¡¡be¡¡no¡¡contract¡£¡¡/l¡¡/¡¡If¡¡I¡¡am¡¡right£»¡¡it¡¡appears¡¡of¡¡little¡¡importance¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡post¡­office¡¡be¡¡regarded¡¡as¡¡agent¡¡or¡¡bailee¡¡for¡¡the¡¡offerer£»¡¡or¡¡as¡¡a¡¡mere¡¡box¡¡to¡¡which¡¡he¡¡has¡¡access¡£¡¡The¡¡offeree£»¡¡when¡¡he¡¡drops¡¡the¡¡letter¡¡containing¡¡the¡¡counter¡­promise¡¡into¡¡the¡¡letter¡­box£»¡¡does¡¡an¡¡overt¡¡act£»¡¡which¡¡by¡¡general¡¡understanding¡¡renounces¡¡control¡¡over¡¡the¡¡letter£»¡¡and¡¡puts¡¡it¡¡into¡¡a¡¡third¡¡hand¡¡for¡¡the¡¡benefit¡¡of¡¡the¡¡offerer£»¡¡with¡¡liberty¡¡to¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡at¡¡any¡¡moment¡¡thereafter¡¡to¡¡take¡¡it¡£

The¡¡principles¡¡governing¡¡revocation¡¡are¡¡wholly¡¡different¡£¡¡One¡¡to¡¡whom¡¡an¡¡offer¡¡is¡¡made¡¡has¡¡a¡¡right¡¡to¡¡assume¡¡that¡¡it¡¡remains¡¡open¡¡according¡¡to¡¡its¡¡terms¡¡until¡¡he¡¡has¡¡actual¡¡£§307£§¡¡notice¡¡to¡¡the¡¡contrary¡£¡¡The¡¡effect¡¡of¡¡the¡¡communication¡¡must¡¡be¡¡destroyed¡¡by¡¡a¡¡counter¡¡communication¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡making¡¡of¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡does¡¡not¡¡depend¡¡on¡¡the¡¡state¡¡of¡¡the¡¡parties'¡¡minds£»¡¡it¡¡depends¡¡on¡¡their¡¡overt¡¡acts¡£¡¡When¡¡the¡¡sign¡¡of¡¡the¡¡counter¡¡promise¡¡is¡¡a¡¡tangible¡¡object£»¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡completed¡¡when¡¡the¡¡dominion¡¡over¡¡that¡¡object¡¡changes¡£

£§308£§¡¡LECTURE¡¡IX¡£

CONTRACT¡£¡­¡¡III¡£¡¡VOID¡¡AND¡¡VOIDABLE¡£

THE¡¡elements¡¡of¡¡fact¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡call¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡into¡¡existence£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡legal¡¡consequences¡¡of¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡when¡¡formed£»¡¡have¡¡been¡¡discussed¡£¡¡It¡¡remains¡¡to¡¡consider¡¡successively¡¡the¡¡cases¡¡in¡¡which¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡said¡¡to¡¡be¡¡void£»¡¡and¡¡those¡¡in¡¡which¡¡it¡¡is¡¡said¡¡to¡¡be¡¡voidable£»in¡¡which£»¡¡that¡¡is£»¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡fails¡¡to¡¡be¡¡made¡¡when¡¡it¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡have¡¡been£»¡¡or£»¡¡having¡¡been¡¡made£»¡¡can¡¡be¡¡rescinded¡¡by¡¡one¡¡side¡¡or¡¡the¡¡other£»¡¡and¡¡treated¡¡as¡¡if¡¡it¡¡had¡¡never¡¡been¡£¡¡I¡¡take¡¡up¡¡the¡¡former¡¡class¡¡of¡¡cases¡¡first¡£

When¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡fails¡¡to¡¡be¡¡made£»¡¡although¡¡the¡¡usual¡¡forms¡¡have¡¡been¡¡gone¡¡through¡¡with£»¡¡the¡¡ground¡¡of¡¡failure¡¡is¡¡commonly¡¡said¡¡to¡¡be¡¡mistake£»¡¡misrepresentation£»¡¡or¡¡fraud¡£¡¡But¡¡I¡¡shall¡¡try¡¡to¡¡show¡¡that¡¡these¡¡are¡¡merely¡¡dramatic¡¡circumstances£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡the¡¡true¡¡ground¡¡is¡¡the¡¡absence¡¡of¡¡one¡¡or¡¡more¡¡of¡¡the¡¡primary¡¡elements£»¡¡which¡¡have¡¡been¡¡shown£»¡¡or¡¡are¡¡seen¡¡at¡¡once£»¡¡to¡¡be¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡the¡¡existence¡¡of¡¡a¡¡contract¡£

If¡¡a¡¡man¡¡goes¡¡through¡¡the¡¡form¡¡of¡¡making¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡with¡¡A¡¡through¡¡B¡¡as¡¡A's¡¡agent£»¡¡and¡¡B¡¡is¡¡not¡¡in¡¡fact¡¡the¡¡agent¡¡of¡¡A£»¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡contract£»¡¡because¡¡there¡¡is¡¡only¡¡one¡¡party¡£¡¡The¡¡promise¡¡offered¡¡to¡¡A¡¡has¡¡not¡¡been¡¡accepted¡¡by¡¡him£»¡¡and¡¡no¡¡consideration¡¡has¡¡moved¡¡from¡¡him¡£¡¡In¡¡such¡¡a¡¡case£»¡¡although¡¡there¡¡is¡¡generally¡¡mistake¡¡on¡¡one¡¡side¡¡and¡¡fraud¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡very¡¡clear¡¡that¡¡no¡¡special¡¡£§309£§¡¡doctrine¡¡need¡¡be¡¡resorted¡¡to£»¡¡because¡¡the¡¡primary¡¡elements¡¡of¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡explained¡¡in¡¡the¡¡last¡¡Lecture¡¡are¡¡not¡¡yet¡¡present¡£

Take¡¡next¡¡a¡¡different¡¡case¡£¡¡The¡¡defendant¡¡agreed¡¡to¡¡buy£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡¡agreed¡¡to¡¡sell£»¡¡a¡¡cargo¡¡of¡¡cotton£»¡¡¡¨to¡¡arrive¡¡ex¡¡Peerless¡¡from¡¡Bombay¡£¡¨¡¡There¡¡were¡¡two¡¡such¡¡vessels¡¡sailing¡¡from¡¡Bombay£»¡¡one¡¡in¡¡October£»¡¡the¡¡other¡¡in¡¡December¡£¡¡The¡¡plaintiff¡¡meant¡¡the¡¡latter£»¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡the¡¡former¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡held¡¡that¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡was¡¡not¡¡bound¡¡to¡¡accept¡¡the¡¡cotton¡£¡¡/1/¡¡It¡¡is¡¡commonly¡¡said¡¡that¡¡such¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡void£»¡¡because¡¡of¡¡mutual¡¡mistake¡¡as¡¡to¡¡the¡¡subject¡­¡¡matter£»¡¡and¡¡because¡¡therefore¡¡the¡¡parties¡¡did¡¡not¡¡consent¡¡to¡¡the¡¡same¡¡thing¡£¡¡But¡¡this¡¡way¡¡of¡¡putting¡¡it¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡me¡¡misleading¡£¡¡The¡¡law¡¡has¡¡nothing¡¡to¡¡do¡¡with¡¡the¡¡actual¡¡state¡¡of¡¡the¡¡parties'¡¡minds¡£¡¡In¡¡contract£»¡¡as¡¡elsewhere£»¡¡it¡¡must¡¡go¡¡by¡¡externals£»¡¡and¡¡judge¡¡parties¡¡by¡¡their¡¡conduct¡£¡¡If¡¡there¡¡had¡¡been¡¡but¡¡one¡¡¡¨Peerless£»¡¨¡¡and¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡had¡¡said¡¡¡¨Peerless¡¨¡¡by¡¡mistake£»¡¡meaning¡¡¡¨Peri£»¡¨¡¡he¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡bound¡£¡¡The¡¡true¡¡ground¡¡of¡¡the¡¡decision¡¡was¡¡not¡¡that¡¡each¡¡party¡¡meant¡¡a¡¡different¡¡thing¡¡from¡¡the¡¡other£»¡¡as¡¡is¡¡implied¡¡by¡¡the¡¡explanation¡¡which¡¡has¡¡been¡¡mentioned£»¡¡but¡¡that¡¡each¡¡said¡¡a¡¡different¡¡thing¡£¡¡The¡¡plaintiff¡¡offered¡¡one¡¡thing£»¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡expressed¡¡his¡¡assent¡¡to¡¡another¡£

A¡¡proper¡¡name£»¡¡when¡¡used¡¡in¡¡business¡¡or¡¡in¡¡pleading£»¡¡/2/¡¡means¡¡one¡¡individual¡¡thing£»¡¡and¡¡no¡¡other£»¡¡as¡¡every¡¡one¡¡

·µ»ØĿ¼ ÉÏÒ»Ò³ ÏÂÒ»Ò³ »Øµ½¶¥²¿ ÔÞ£¨0£© ²È£¨0£©

Äã¿ÉÄÜϲ»¶µÄ