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atter¡¡was¡¡a¡¡sufficient¡¡consideration¡¡for¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡at¡¡a¡¡later¡¡day£»¡¡if¡¡only¡¡the¡¡matter¡¡relied¡¡on¡¡had¡¡been¡¡done¡¡or¡¡furnished¡¡at¡¡the¡¡request¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promisor¡£¡¡/2/

It¡¡is¡¡now¡¡time¡¡to¡¡analyze¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡a¡¡promise£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡the¡¡second¡¡and¡¡most¡¡conspicuous¡¡element¡¡in¡¡a¡¡simple¡¡contract¡£¡¡The¡¡Indian¡¡Contract¡¡Act£»¡¡1872£»¡¡Section¡¡2£»8¡¡says£º

¡¡¡¨£¨a¡££©¡¡When¡¡one¡¡person¡¡signifies¡¡to¡¡another¡¡his¡¡willingness¡¡£§298£§¡¡to¡¡do¡¡or¡¡to¡¡abstain¡¡from¡¡doing¡¡anything£»¡¡with¡¡a¡¡view¡¡to¡¡obtaining¡¡the¡¡assent¡¡of¡¡that¡¡other¡¡to¡¡such¡¡act¡¡or¡¡abstinence£»¡¡he¡¡is¡¡said¡¡to¡¡make¡¡a¡¡proposal£º

¡¡¡¨£¨b¡££©¡¡When¡¡the¡¡person¡¡to¡¡whom¡¡the¡¡proposal¡¡is¡¡made¡¡signifies¡¡his¡¡assent¡¡thereto£»¡¡the¡¡proposal¡¡is¡¡said¡¡to¡¡be¡¡accepted¡£¡¡A¡¡proposal¡¡when¡¡accepted¡¡becomes¡¡a¡¡promise¡£¡¨

According¡¡to¡¡this¡¡definition¡¡the¡¡scope¡¡of¡¡promises¡¡is¡¡confined¡¡to¡¡conduct¡¡on¡¡the¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promisor¡£¡¡If¡¡this¡¡only¡¡meant¡¡that¡¡the¡¡promisor¡¡alone¡¡must¡¡bear¡¡the¡¡legal¡¡burden¡¡which¡¡his¡¡promise¡¡may¡¡create£»¡¡it¡¡would¡¡be¡¡true¡£¡¡But¡¡this¡¡is¡¡not¡¡the¡¡meaning¡£¡¡For¡¡the¡¡definition¡¡is¡¡of¡¡a¡¡promise£»¡¡not¡¡of¡¡a¡¡legally¡¡binding¡¡promise¡£¡¡We¡¡are¡¡not¡¡seeking¡¡for¡¡the¡¡legal¡¡effects¡¡of¡¡a¡¡contract£»¡¡but¡¡for¡¡the¡¡possible¡¡contents¡¡of¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡which¡¡the¡¡law¡¡may¡¡or¡¡may¡¡not¡¡enforce¡£¡¡We¡¡must¡¡therefore¡¡only¡¡consider¡¡the¡¡question¡¡what¡¡can¡¡possibly¡¡be¡¡promised¡¡in¡¡a¡¡legal¡¡sense£»¡¡not¡¡what¡¡will¡¡be¡¡the¡¡secondary¡¡consequence¡¡of¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡binding£»¡¡but¡¡not¡¡performed¡£

An¡¡assurance¡¡that¡¡it¡¡shall¡¡rain¡¡to¡­morrow£»¡¡/1/¡¡or¡¡that¡¡a¡¡third¡¡person¡¡shall¡¡paint¡¡a¡¡picture£»¡¡may¡¡as¡¡well¡¡be¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡as¡¡one¡¡that¡¡the¡¡promisee¡¡shall¡¡receive¡¡from¡¡some¡¡source¡¡one¡¡hundred¡¡bales¡¡of¡¡cotton£»¡¡or¡¡that¡¡the¡¡promisor¡¡will¡¡pay¡¡the¡¡promisee¡¡one¡¡hundred¡¡dollars¡£¡¡What¡¡is¡¡the¡¡difference¡¡in¡¡the¡¡cases£¿¡¡It¡¡is¡¡only¡¡in¡¡the¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡power¡¡possessed¡¡by¡¡the¡¡promisor¡¡over¡¡the¡¡event¡£¡¡He¡¡has¡¡none¡¡in¡¡the¡¡first¡¡case¡£¡¡He¡¡has¡¡equally¡¡little¡¡legal¡¡authority¡¡to¡¡make¡¡a¡¡man¡¡paint¡¡a¡¡picture£»¡¡although¡¡he¡¡may¡¡have¡¡larger¡¡means¡¡of¡¡persuasion¡£¡¡He¡¡probably¡¡will¡¡be¡¡able¡¡to¡¡make¡¡sure¡¡that¡¡the¡¡promisee¡¡has¡¡the¡¡cotton¡£¡¡Being¡¡a¡¡rich¡¡man£»¡¡he¡¡is¡¡certain¡¡£§299£§¡¡to¡¡be¡¡able¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡the¡¡one¡¡hundred¡¡dollars£»¡¡except¡¡in¡¡the¡¡event¡¡of¡¡some¡¡most¡¡improbable¡¡accident¡£

But¡¡the¡¡law¡¡does¡¡not¡¡inquire£»¡¡as¡¡a¡¡general¡¡thing£»¡¡how¡¡far¡¡the¡¡accomplishment¡¡of¡¡an¡¡assurance¡¡touching¡¡the¡¡future¡¡is¡¡within¡¡the¡¡power¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promisor¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡moral¡¡world¡¡it¡¡may¡¡be¡¡that¡¡the¡¡obligation¡¡of¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡is¡¡confined¡¡to¡¡what¡¡lies¡¡within¡¡reach¡¡of¡¡the¡¡will¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promisor¡¡£¨except¡¡so¡¡far¡¡as¡¡the¡¡limit¡¡is¡¡unknown¡¡on¡¡one¡¡side£»¡¡and¡¡misrepresented¡¡on¡¡the¡¡other£©¡£¡¡But¡¡unless¡¡some¡¡consideration¡¡of¡¡public¡¡policy¡¡intervenes£»¡¡I¡¡take¡¡it¡¡that¡¡a¡¡man¡¡may¡¡bind¡¡himself¡¡at¡¡law¡¡that¡¡any¡¡future¡¡event¡¡shall¡¡happen¡£¡¡He¡¡can¡¡therefore¡¡promise¡¡it¡¡in¡¡a¡¡legal¡¡sense¡£¡¡It¡¡may¡¡be¡¡said¡¡that¡¡when¡¡a¡¡man¡¡covenants¡¡that¡¡it¡¡shall¡¡rain¡¡to¡­morrow£»¡¡or¡¡that¡¡A¡¡shall¡¡paint¡¡a¡¡picture£»¡¡he¡¡only¡¡says£»¡¡in¡¡a¡¡short¡¡form£»¡¡I¡¡will¡¡pay¡¡if¡¡it¡¡does¡¡not¡¡rain£»¡¡or¡¡if¡¡A¡¡does¡¡not¡¡paint¡¡a¡¡picture¡£¡¡But¡¡that¡¡is¡¡not¡¡necessarily¡¡so¡£¡¡A¡¡promise¡¡could¡¡easily¡¡be¡¡framed¡¡which¡¡would¡¡be¡¡broken¡¡by¡¡the¡¡happening¡¡of¡¡fair¡¡weather£»¡¡or¡¡by¡¡A¡¡not¡¡painting¡£¡¡A¡¡promise£»¡¡then£»¡¡is¡¡simply¡¡an¡¡accepted¡¡assurance¡¡that¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡event¡¡or¡¡state¡¡of¡¡things¡¡shall¡¡come¡¡to¡¡pass¡£

But¡¡if¡¡this¡¡be¡¡true£»¡¡it¡¡has¡¡more¡¡important¡¡bearings¡¡than¡¡simply¡¡to¡¡enlarge¡¡the¡¡definition¡¡of¡¡the¡¡word¡¡promise¡£¡¡It¡¡concerns¡¡the¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡contract¡£¡¡The¡¡consequences¡¡of¡¡a¡¡binding¡¡promise¡¡at¡¡common¡¡law¡¡are¡¡not¡¡affected¡¡by¡¡the¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡power¡¡which¡¡the¡¡promisor¡¡possesses¡¡over¡¡the¡¡promised¡¡event¡£¡¡If¡¡the¡¡promised¡¡event¡¡does¡¡not¡¡come¡¡to¡¡pass£»¡¡the¡¡plaintiff's¡¡property¡¡is¡¡sold¡¡to¡¡satisfy¡¡the¡¡damages£»¡¡within¡¡certain¡¡limits£»¡¡which¡¡the¡¡promisee¡¡has¡¡suffered¡¡by¡¡the¡¡failure¡£¡¡The¡¡consequences¡¡are¡¡the¡¡same¡¡in¡¡kind¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡is¡¡that¡¡it¡¡shall¡¡rain£»¡¡or¡¡that¡¡another¡¡man¡¡shall¡¡paint¡¡a¡¡picture£»¡¡or¡¡that¡¡the¡¡promisor¡¡will¡¡deliver¡¡a¡¡bale¡¡of¡¡cotton¡£

£§300£§¡¡If¡¡the¡¡legal¡¡consequence¡¡is¡¡the¡¡same¡¡in¡¡all¡¡cases£»¡¡it¡¡seems¡¡proper¡¡that¡¡all¡¡contracts¡¡should¡¡be¡¡considered¡¡from¡¡the¡¡same¡¡legal¡¡point¡¡of¡¡view¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡case¡¡of¡¡a¡¡binding¡¡promise¡¡that¡¡it¡¡shall¡¡rain¡¡to¡­morrow£»¡¡the¡¡immediate¡¡legal¡¡effect¡¡of¡¡what¡¡the¡¡promisor¡¡does¡¡is£»¡¡that¡¡he¡¡takes¡¡the¡¡risk¡¡of¡¡the¡¡event£»¡¡within¡¡certain¡¡defined¡¡limits£»¡¡as¡¡between¡¡himself¡¡and¡¡the¡¡promisee¡£¡¡He¡¡does¡¡no¡¡more¡¡when¡¡he¡¡promises¡¡to¡¡deliver¡¡a¡¡bale¡¡of¡¡cotton¡£

If¡¡it¡¡be¡¡proper¡¡to¡¡state¡¡the¡¡common¡­law¡¡meaning¡¡of¡¡promise¡¡and¡¡contract¡¡in¡¡this¡¡way£»¡¡it¡¡has¡¡the¡¡advantage¡¡of¡¡freeing¡¡the¡¡subject¡¡from¡¡the¡¡superfluous¡¡theory¡¡that¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡a¡¡qualified¡¡subjection¡¡of¡¡one¡¡will¡¡to¡¡another£»¡¡a¡¡kind¡¡of¡¡limited¡¡slavery¡£¡¡It¡¡might¡¡be¡¡so¡¡regarded¡¡if¡¡the¡¡law¡¡compelled¡¡men¡¡to¡¡perform¡¡their¡¡contracts£»¡¡or¡¡if¡¡it¡¡allowed¡¡promisees¡¡to¡¡exercise¡¡such¡¡compulsion¡£¡¡If£»¡¡when¡¡a¡¡man¡¡promised¡¡to¡¡labor¡¡for¡¡another£»¡¡the¡¡law¡¡made¡¡him¡¡do¡¡it£»¡¡his¡¡relation¡¡to¡¡his¡¡promisee¡¡might¡¡be¡¡called¡¡a¡¡servitude¡¡ad¡¡hoc¡¡with¡¡some¡¡truth¡£¡¡But¡¡that¡¡is¡¡what¡¡the¡¡law¡¡never¡¡does¡£¡¡It¡¡never¡¡interferes¡¡until¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡has¡¡been¡¡broken£»¡¡and¡¡therefore¡¡cannot¡¡possibly¡¡be¡¡performed¡¡according¡¡to¡¡its¡¡tenor¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡true¡¡that¡¡in¡¡some¡¡instances¡¡equity¡¡does¡¡what¡¡is¡¡called¡¡compelling¡¡specific¡¡performance¡£¡¡But£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡first¡¡place£»¡¡I¡¡am¡¡speaking¡¡of¡¡the¡¡common¡¡law£»¡¡and£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡next£»¡¡this¡¡only¡¡means¡¡that¡¡equity¡¡compels¡¡the¡¡performance¡¡of¡¡certain¡¡elements¡¡of¡¡the¡¡total¡¡promise¡¡which¡¡are¡¡still¡¡capable¡¡of¡¡performance¡£¡¡For¡¡instance£»¡¡take¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡to¡¡convey¡¡land¡¡within¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡time£»¡¡a¡¡court¡¡of¡¡equity¡¡is¡¡not¡¡in¡¡the¡¡habit¡¡of¡¡interfering¡¡until¡¡the¡¡time¡¡has¡¡gone¡¡by£»¡¡so¡¡that¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡performed¡¡as¡¡made¡£¡¡But¡¡if¡¡the¡¡conveyance¡¡is¡¡more¡¡important¡¡than¡¡the¡¡time£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡promisee¡¡prefers¡¡to¡¡have¡¡it¡¡late¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡never£»¡¡the¡¡law¡¡may¡¡compel¡¡the¡¡performance¡¡of¡¡£§301£§¡¡that¡£¡¡Not¡¡literally¡¡compel¡¡even¡¡in¡¡that¡¡case£»¡¡however£»¡¡but¡¡put¡¡the¡¡promisor¡¡in¡¡prison¡¡unless¡¡he¡¡will¡¡convey¡£¡¡This¡¡remedy¡¡is¡¡an¡¡exceptional¡¡one¡£¡¡The¡¡only¡¡universal¡¡consequence¡¡of¡¡a¡¡legally¡¡binding¡¡promise¡¡is£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡law¡¡makes¡¡the¡¡promisor¡¡pay¡¡damages¡¡if¡¡the¡¡promised¡¡event¡¡does¡¡not¡¡come¡¡to¡¡pass¡£¡¡In¡¡every¡¡case¡¡it¡¡leaves¡¡him¡¡free¡¡from¡¡interference¡¡until¡¡the¡¡time¡¡for¡¡fulfilment¡¡has¡¡gone¡¡by£»¡¡and¡¡therefore¡¡free¡¡to¡¡break¡¡his¡¡contract¡¡if¡¡he¡¡chooses¡£

A¡¡more¡¡practical¡¡advantage¡¡in¡¡looking¡¡at¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡as¡¡the¡¡taking¡¡of¡¡a¡¡risk¡¡is¡¡to¡¡be¡¡found¡¡in¡¡the¡¡light¡¡which¡¡it¡¡throws¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡measure¡¡of¡¡damages¡£¡¡If¡¡a¡¡breach¡¡of¡¡contract¡¡were¡¡regarded¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡light¡¡as¡¡a¡¡tort£»¡¡it¡¡would¡¡seem¡¡that¡¡if£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡course¡¡of¡¡performance¡¡of¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡the¡¡promisor¡¡should¡¡be¡¡notified¡¡of¡¡any¡¡particular¡¡consequence¡¡which¡¡would¡¡result¡¡from¡¡its¡¡not¡¡being¡¡performed£»¡¡he¡¡should¡¡be¡¡held¡¡liable¡¡for¡¡that¡¡consequence¡¡in¡¡the¡¡event¡¡of¡¡non¡­performance¡£¡¡Such¡¡a¡¡suggestion¡¡has¡¡been¡¡made¡£¡¡/1/¡¡But¡¡it¡¡has¡¡not¡¡been¡¡accepted¡¡as¡¡the¡¡law¡£¡¡On¡¡the¡¡contrary£»¡¡according¡¡to¡¡the¡¡opinion¡¡of¡¡a¡¡very¡¡able¡¡judge£»¡¡which¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡be¡¡generally¡¡followed£»¡¡notice£»¡¡even¡¡at¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡making¡¡the¡¡contract£»¡¡of¡¡special¡¡circumstances¡¡out¡¡of¡¡which¡¡special¡¡damages¡¡would¡¡arise¡¡in¡¡case¡¡of¡¡breach£»¡¡is¡¡not¡¡sufficient¡¡unless¡¡the¡¡assumption¡¡of¡¡that¡¡risk¡¡is¡¡to¡¡be¡¡taken¡¡as¡¡having¡¡fairly¡¡entered¡¡into¡¡the¡¡contract¡£¡¡/2/¡¡If¡¡a¡¡carrier¡¡should¡¡undertake¡¡to¡¡carry¡¡the¡¡machinery¡¡of¡¡a¡¡saw¡­mill¡¡from¡¡Liverpool¡¡to¡¡Vancouver's¡¡Island£»¡¡and¡¡should¡¡fail¡¡£§302£§¡¡to¡¡do¡¡so£»¡¡he¡¡probably¡¡would¡¡not¡¡be¡¡held¡¡liable¡¡for¡¡the¡¡rate¡¡of¡¡hire¡¡of¡¡such¡¡machinery¡¡during¡¡the¡¡necessary¡¡delay£»¡¡although¡¡he¡¡might¡¡know¡¡that¡¡it¡¡could¡¡not¡¡be¡¡replaced¡¡without¡¡sending¡¡to¡¡England£»¡¡unless¡¡he¡¡was¡¡fairly¡¡understood¡¡to¡¡accept¡¡¡¨the¡¡contract¡¡with¡¡the¡¡special¡¡condition¡¡attached¡¡to¡¡it¡£¡¨¡¡/1/

It¡¡is¡¡true¡¡that£»¡¡when¡¡people¡¡make¡¡contracts£»¡¡they¡¡usually¡¡contemplate¡¡the¡¡performance¡¡rather¡¡than¡¡the¡¡breach¡£¡¡The¡¡express¡¡language¡¡used¡¡does¡¡not¡¡generally¡¡go¡¡further¡¡than¡¡to¡¡define¡¡what¡¡will¡¡happen¡¡if¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡fulfilled¡£¡¡A¡¡statutory¡¡requirement¡¡of¡¡a¡¡memorandum¡¡in¡¡writing¡¡would¡¡be¡¡satisfied¡¡by¡¡a¡¡written¡¡statement¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡as¡¡made£»¡¡because¡¡to¡¡require¡¡more¡¡would¡¡be¡¡to¡¡run¡¡counter¡¡to¡¡the¡¡ordinary¡¡habits¡¡of¡¡mankind£»¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡because¡¡the¡¡statement¡¡that¡¡the¡¡effect¡¡of¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡the¡¡assumption¡¡of¡¡the¡¡risk¡¡of¡¡a¡¡future¡¡event¡¡does¡¡not¡¡mean¡¡that¡¡there¡¡is¡¡a¡¡second¡¡subsidiary¡¡promise¡¡to¡¡assume¡¡that¡¡risk£»¡¡but¡¡that¡¡the¡¡assumption¡¡follows¡¡as¡¡a¡¡consequence¡¡directly¡¡enforced¡¡by¡¡the¡¡law£»¡¡without¡¡the¡¡promisor's¡¡co¡­operation¡£¡¡So¡¡parol¡¡evidence¡¡would¡¡be¡¡admissible£»¡¡no¡¡doubt£»¡¡to¡¡enlarge¡¡or¡¡diminish¡¡the¡¡extent¡¡of¡¡the¡¡liability¡¡assumed¡¡for¡¡nonperformance£»¡¡where¡¡it¡¡would¡¡be¡¡inadmissible¡¡to¡¡affect¡¡the¡¡scope¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promise¡£

But¡¡these¡¡concessions¡¡do¡¡not¡¡affect¡¡the¡¡view¡¡here¡¡taken¡£¡¡As¡¡the¡¡relation¡¡of¡¡contractor¡¡and¡¡contractee¡¡is¡¡voluntary£»¡¡the¡¡consequences¡¡attaching¡¡to¡¡the¡¡relation¡¡must¡¡be¡¡voluntary¡£¡¡What¡¡the¡¡event¡¡contemplated¡¡by¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡is£»¡¡or¡¡in¡¡other¡¡words¡¡what¡¡will¡¡amount¡¡to¡¡a¡¡breach¡¡of¡¡contract£»¡¡is¡¡a¡¡matter¡¡of¡¡interpretation¡¡and¡¡construction¡£¡¡What¡¡consequences¡¡of¡¡the¡¡breach¡¡are¡¡assumed¡¡is¡¡more¡¡remotely£»¡¡in¡¡like¡¡manner£»¡¡a¡¡matter¡¡of¡¡construction£»¡¡having¡¡regard¡¡£§303£§¡¡to¡¡the¡¡circumstances¡¡under¡¡which¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡is¡¡made¡£¡¡Knowledge¡¡of¡¡what¡¡is¡¡dependent¡¡upon¡¡performance¡¡is¡¡one¡¡of¡¡those¡¡circumstances¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡not¡¡necessarily¡¡conclusive£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡may¡¡have¡¡the¡¡effect¡¡of¡¡enlarging¡¡the¡¡risk¡¡assumed¡£

The¡¡very¡¡office¡¡of¡¡construction¡¡is¡¡to¡¡work¡¡out£»¡¡from¡¡what¡¡is¡¡expressly¡¡said¡¡and¡¡done£»¡¡what¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡said¡¡with¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡events¡¡not¡¡definitely¡¡before¡¡the¡¡minds¡¡of¡¡the¡¡parties£»¡¡if¡¡those¡¡events¡¡had¡¡been¡¡considered¡£¡¡The¡¡price¡¡paid¡¡in¡¡mercantile¡¡contracts¡¡generally¡¡excludes¡¡the¡¡construction¡¡that¡¡exceptional¡¡risks¡¡were¡¡intended¡¡to¡¡be¡¡assumed¡£¡¡The¡¡foregoing¡¡analysis¡¡is¡¡believed¡¡to

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