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objected¡¡to¡¡au¡¡action¡¡upon¡¡an¡¡£§268£§¡¡assumpsit¡¡for¡¡not¡¡building¡¡a¡¡mill£»¡¡that¡¡it¡¡was¡¡not¡¡shown¡¡what¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡was¡¡to¡¡have¡¡for¡¡doing¡¡it¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡thirty¡­sixth¡¡year¡¡of¡¡the¡¡same¡¡reign¡¡£¨A¡£D¡£¡¡1459£©£»¡¡the¡¡doctrine¡¡appears¡¡full¡¡grown£»¡¡and¡¡is¡¡assumed¡¡to¡¡be¡¡familiar¡£¡¡/1/

The¡¡case¡¡turned¡¡upon¡¡a¡¡question¡¡which¡¡was¡¡debated¡¡for¡¡centuries¡¡before¡¡it¡¡was¡¡settled£»¡¡whether¡¡debt¡¡would¡¡lie¡¡for¡¡a¡¡sum¡¡of¡¡money¡¡promised¡¡by¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡to¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡¡if¡¡he¡¡would¡¡marry¡¡the¡¡defendant's¡¡daughter¡£¡¡But¡¡whereas¡¡formerly¡¡the¡¡debate¡¡had¡¡been¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡promise¡¡was¡¡not¡¡so¡¡far¡¡incident¡¡to¡¡the¡¡marriage¡¡that¡¡it¡¡belonged¡¡exclusively¡¡to¡¡the¡¡jurisdiction¡¡of¡¡the¡¡spiritual¡¡courts£»¡¡it¡¡now¡¡touched¡¡the¡¡purely¡¡mundane¡¡doubt¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡had¡¡had¡¡quid¡¡pro¡¡quo¡£

It¡¡will¡¡be¡¡remembered¡¡that¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡formerly¡¡sworn¡¡to¡¡by¡¡the¡¡transaction¡¡witnesses¡¡was¡¡a¡¡benefit¡¡to¡¡the¡¡defendant£»¡¡namely£»¡¡a¡¡delivery¡¡of¡¡the¡¡things¡¡sold¡¡or¡¡the¡¡money¡¡lent¡¡to¡¡him¡£¡¡Such¡¡cases£»¡¡also£»¡¡offer¡¡the¡¡most¡¡obvious¡¡form¡¡of¡¡consideration¡£¡¡The¡¡natural¡¡question¡¡is£»¡¡what¡¡the¡¡promisor¡¡was¡¡to¡¡have¡¡for¡¡his¡¡promise¡£¡¡/2/¡¡It¡¡is¡¡only¡¡by¡¡analysis¡¡that¡¡the¡¡supposed¡¡policy¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡¡is¡¡seen¡¡to¡¡be¡¡equally¡¡satisfied¡¡by¡¡a¡¡detriment¡¡incurred¡¡by¡¡the¡¡promisee¡£¡¡It¡¡therefore¡¡not¡¡unnaturally¡¡happened¡¡that¡¡the¡¡judges£»¡¡when¡¡they¡¡first¡¡laid¡¡down¡¡the¡¡law¡¡that¡¡there¡¡must¡¡be¡¡quid¡¡pro¡¡quo£»¡¡were¡¡slow¡¡to¡¡recognize¡¡a¡¡detriment¡¡to¡¡the¡¡contractee¡¡as¡¡satisfying¡¡the¡¡requirement¡¡which¡¡had¡¡been¡¡laid¡¡down¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡case¡¡which¡¡I¡¡have¡¡mentioned¡¡some¡¡of¡¡the¡¡judges¡¡were¡¡inclined¡¡to¡¡hold¡¡that¡¡getting¡¡rid¡¡of¡¡his¡¡daughter¡¡was¡¡a¡¡sufficient¡¡benefit¡¡to¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡to¡¡make¡¡him¡¡a¡¡debtor¡¡for¡¡the¡¡money¡¡which¡¡he¡¡promised£»¡¡and¡¡there¡¡was¡¡even¡¡some¡¡hint¡¡of¡¡the¡¡opinion£»¡¡that¡¡marrying¡¡the¡¡lady¡¡was¡¡a¡¡£§269£§¡¡consideration£»¡¡because¡¡it¡¡was¡¡a¡¡detriment¡¡to¡¡the¡¡promisee¡£¡¡/1/¡¡But¡¡the¡¡other¡¡opinion¡¡prevailed£»¡¡at¡¡least¡¡for¡¡a¡¡time£»¡¡because¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡had¡¡had¡¡nothing¡¡from¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡¡to¡¡raise¡¡a¡¡debt¡£¡¡/2/

So¡¡it¡¡was¡¡held¡¡that¡¡a¡¡service¡¡rendered¡¡to¡¡a¡¡third¡¡person¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡defendant's¡¡request¡¡and¡¡promise¡¡of¡¡a¡¡reward¡¡would¡¡not¡¡be¡¡enough£»¡¡/3/¡¡although¡¡not¡¡without¡¡strong¡¡opinions¡¡to¡¡the¡¡contrary£»¡¡and¡¡for¡¡a¡¡time¡¡the¡¡precedents¡¡were¡¡settled¡£¡¡It¡¡became¡¡established¡¡law¡¡that¡¡an¡¡action¡¡of¡¡debt¡¡would¡¡only¡¡lie¡¡upon¡¡a¡¡consideration¡¡actually¡¡received¡¡by¡¡and¡¡enuring¡¡to¡¡the¡¡benefit¡¡of¡¡the¡¡debtor¡£

It¡¡was£»¡¡however£»¡¡no¡¡peculiarity¡¡of¡¡either¡¡the¡¡action¡¡or¡¡contract¡¡of¡¡debt¡¡which¡¡led¡¡to¡¡this¡¡view£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡imperfectly¡¡developed¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡consideration¡¡prevailing¡¡between¡¡the¡¡reigns¡¡of¡¡Henry¡¡VI¡£¡¡and¡¡Elizabeth¡£¡¡The¡¡theory¡¡the¡¡same¡¡in¡¡assumpsit£»¡¡/4/¡¡and¡¡in¡¡equity¡£¡¡/5/¡¡Wherever¡¡consideration¡¡was¡¡mentioned£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡always¡¡as¡¡quid¡¡pro¡¡quo£»¡¡as¡¡what¡¡the¡¡contractor¡¡was¡¡to¡¡have¡¡for¡¡his¡¡contract¡£

Moreover£»¡¡before¡¡consideration¡¡was¡¡ever¡¡heard¡¡of£»¡¡debt¡¡was¡¡the¡¡time¡­honored¡¡remedy¡¡on¡¡every¡¡obligation¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡money¡¡enforced¡¡by¡¡law£»¡¡except¡¡the¡¡liability¡¡to¡¡damages¡¡for¡¡a¡¡wrong¡£¡¡/6/¡¡It¡¡has¡¡been¡¡shown¡¡already¡¡that¡¡a¡¡surety¡¡could¡¡be¡¡sued¡¡in¡¡debt¡¡until¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡Edward¡¡III¡£¡¡without¡¡a¡¡writing£»¡¡yet¡¡a¡¡surety¡¡receives¡¡no¡¡benefit¡¡from¡¡the¡¡dealing¡¡with¡¡his¡¡principal¡£¡¡For¡¡instance£»¡¡if¡¡a¡¡man¡¡sells¡¡corn¡¡to¡¡A£»¡¡£§270£§¡¡and¡¡B¡¡says£»¡¡¡¨I¡¡will¡¡pay¡¡if¡¡A¡¡does¡¡not£»¡¨¡¡the¡¡sale¡¡does¡¡B¡¡no¡¡good¡¡so¡¡far¡¡as¡¡appears¡¡by¡¡the¡¡terms¡¡of¡¡the¡¡bargain¡£¡¡For¡¡this¡¡reason£»¡¡debt¡¡cannot¡¡now¡¡be¡¡maintained¡¡against¡¡a¡¡surety¡¡in¡¡such¡¡a¡¡case¡£

It¡¡was¡¡not¡¡always¡¡so¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡not¡¡so¡¡to¡¡this¡¡day¡¡if¡¡there¡¡is¡¡an¡¡obligation¡¡under¡¡seal¡£¡¡In¡¡that¡¡case£»¡¡it¡¡does¡¡not¡¡matter¡¡how¡¡the¡¡obligation¡¡arose£»¡¡or¡¡whether¡¡there¡¡was¡¡any¡¡consideration¡¡for¡¡it¡¡or¡¡not¡£¡¡But¡¡a¡¡writing¡¡was¡¡a¡¡more¡¡general¡¡way¡¡of¡¡establishing¡¡a¡¡debt¡¡in¡¡Glanvill's¡¡time¡¡than¡¡witness£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡is¡¡absurd¡¡to¡¡determine¡¡the¡¡scope¡¡of¡¡the¡¡action¡¡by¡¡considering¡¡only¡¡a¡¡single¡¡class¡¡of¡¡debts¡¡enforced¡¡by¡¡it¡£¡¡Moreover£»¡¡a¡¡writing¡¡for¡¡a¡¡long¡¡time¡¡was¡¡only¡¡another£»¡¡although¡¡more¡¡conclusive£»¡¡mode¡¡of¡¡proof¡£¡¡The¡¡foundation¡¡of¡¡the¡¡action¡¡was¡¡the¡¡same£»¡¡however¡¡it¡¡was¡¡proved¡£¡¡This¡¡was¡¡a¡¡duty¡¡or¡¡¡¨duity¡¨¡¡/1/¡¡to¡¡the¡¡plaintiff£»¡¡in¡¡other¡¡words£»¡¡that¡¡money¡¡was¡¡due¡¡him£»¡¡no¡¡matter¡¡how£»¡¡as¡¡any¡¡one¡¡may¡¡see¡¡by¡¡reading¡¡the¡¡earlier¡¡Year¡¡Books¡£¡¡Hence¡¡it¡¡was£»¡¡that¡¡debt¡¡lay¡¡equally¡¡upon¡¡a¡¡judgment£»¡¡/2/¡¡which¡¡established¡¡such¡¡a¡¡duty¡¡by¡¡matter¡¡of¡¡record£»¡¡or¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡defendant's¡¡admission¡¡recorded¡¡in¡¡like¡¡manner¡£¡¡/3/

To¡¡sum¡¡up£»¡¡the¡¡action¡¡of¡¡debt¡¡has¡¡passed¡¡through¡¡three¡¡stages¡£¡¡At¡¡first£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡the¡¡only¡¡remedy¡¡to¡¡recover¡¡money¡¡due£»¡¡except¡¡when¡¡the¡¡liability¡¡was¡¡simply¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡damages¡¡for¡¡a¡¡wrongful¡¡act¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡closely¡¡akin¡¡toindeed¡¡it¡¡was¡¡but¡¡a¡¡branch¡¡ofthe¡¡action¡¡for¡¡any¡¡form¡¡of¡¡personal¡¡property¡¡which¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡was¡¡bound¡¡by¡¡contract¡¡or¡¡otherwise¡¡to¡¡hand¡¡over¡¡to¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡£¡¡/4/¡¡If¡¡there¡¡was¡¡a¡¡contract¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡money£»¡¡the¡¡only¡¡question¡¡was¡¡how¡¡you¡¡£§271£§¡¡could¡¡prove¡¡it¡£¡¡Any¡¡such¡¡contract£»¡¡which¡¡could¡¡be¡¡proved¡¡by¡¡any¡¡of¡¡the¡¡means¡¡known¡¡to¡¡early¡¡law£»¡¡constituted¡¡a¡¡debt¡£¡¡There¡¡was¡¡no¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡consideration£»¡¡and¡¡therefore£»¡¡of¡¡course£»¡¡no¡¡limit¡¡to¡¡either¡¡the¡¡action¡¡or¡¡the¡¡contract¡¡based¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡the¡¡consideration¡¡received¡£

The¡¡second¡¡stage¡¡was¡¡when¡¡the¡¡doctrine¡¡of¡¡consideration¡¡was¡¡introduced¡¡in¡¡its¡¡earlier¡¡form¡¡of¡¡a¡¡benefit¡¡to¡¡the¡¡promisor¡£¡¡This¡¡applied¡¡to¡¡all¡¡contracts¡¡not¡¡under¡¡seal¡¡while¡¡it¡¡prevailed£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡was¡¡established¡¡while¡¡debt¡¡was¡¡the¡¡only¡¡action¡¡for¡¡money¡¡payable¡¡by¡¡such¡¡contracts¡£¡¡The¡¡precedents¡¡are£»¡¡for¡¡the¡¡most¡¡part£»¡¡precedents¡¡in¡¡debt¡£

The¡¡third¡¡stage¡¡was¡¡reached¡¡when¡¡a¡¡larger¡¡view¡¡was¡¡taken¡¡of¡¡consideration£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡was¡¡expressed¡¡in¡¡terms¡¡of¡¡detriment¡¡to¡¡the¡¡promisee¡£¡¡This¡¡change¡¡was¡¡a¡¡change¡¡in¡¡substantive¡¡law£»¡¡and¡¡logically¡¡it¡¡should¡¡have¡¡been¡¡applied¡¡throughout¡£¡¡But¡¡it¡¡arose¡¡in¡¡another¡¡and¡¡later¡¡form¡¡of¡¡action£»¡¡under¡¡circumstances¡¡peculiarly¡¡connected¡¡with¡¡that¡¡action£»¡¡as¡¡will¡¡be¡¡explained¡¡hereafter¡£¡¡The¡¡result¡¡was¡¡that¡¡the¡¡new¡¡doctrine¡¡prevailed¡¡in¡¡the¡¡new¡¡action£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡old¡¡in¡¡the¡¡old£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡what¡¡was¡¡really¡¡the¡¡anomaly¡¡of¡¡inconsistent¡¡theories¡¡carried¡¡out¡¡side¡¡by¡¡side¡¡disguised¡¡itself¡¡in¡¡the¡¡form¡¡of¡¡a¡¡limitation¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡action¡¡of¡¡debt¡£¡¡That¡¡action¡¡did¡¡not¡¡remain£»¡¡as¡¡formerly£»¡¡the¡¡remedy¡¡for¡¡all¡¡binding¡¡contracts¡¡to¡¡pay¡¡money£»¡¡but£»¡¡so¡¡far¡¡as¡¡parol¡¡contracts¡¡were¡¡concerned£»¡¡could¡¡only¡¡be¡¡used¡¡where¡¡the¡¡consideration¡¡was¡¡a¡¡benefit¡¡actually¡¡received¡¡by¡¡the¡¡promisor¡£¡¡With¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡obligations¡¡arising¡¡in¡¡any¡¡other¡¡way£»¡¡it¡¡has¡¡remained¡¡unchanged¡£

I¡¡must¡¡now¡¡devote¡¡a¡¡few¡¡words¡¡to¡¡the¡¡effect¡¡upon¡¡our¡¡law¡¡of¡¡the¡¡other¡¡mode¡¡of¡¡proof¡¡which¡¡I¡¡have¡¡mentioned¡£¡¡I¡¡mean¡¡charters¡£¡¡A¡¡charter¡¡was¡¡simply¡¡a¡¡writing¡£¡¡As¡¡few¡¡could¡¡write£»¡¡most¡¡people¡¡had¡¡to¡¡authenticate¡¡a¡¡document¡¡£§272£§¡¡in¡¡some¡¡other¡¡way£»¡¡for¡¡instance£»¡¡by¡¡making¡¡their¡¡mark¡£¡¡This¡¡was£»¡¡in¡¡fact£»¡¡the¡¡universal¡¡practice¡¡in¡¡England¡¡until¡¡the¡¡introduction¡¡of¡¡Norman¡¡customs¡£¡¡/1/¡¡With¡¡them¡¡seals¡¡came¡¡in¡£¡¡But¡¡as¡¡late¡¡as¡¡Henry¡¡II¡£¡¡they¡¡were¡¡said¡¡by¡¡the¡¡Chief¡¡Justice¡¡of¡¡England¡¡to¡¡belong¡¡properly¡¡only¡¡to¡¡kings¡¡and¡¡to¡¡very¡¡great¡¡men¡£¡¡/2/¡¡I¡¡know¡¡no¡¡ground¡¡for¡¡thinking¡¡that¡¡an¡¡authentic¡¡charter¡¡had¡¡any¡¡less¡¡effect¡¡at¡¡that¡¡time¡¡when¡¡not¡¡under¡¡seal¡¡than¡¡when¡¡it¡¡was¡¡sealed¡£¡¡/3/¡¡It¡¡was¡¡only¡¡evidence¡¡either¡¡way£»¡¡and¡¡is¡¡called¡¡so¡¡in¡¡many¡¡of¡¡the¡¡early¡¡cases¡£¡¡/4/¡¡It¡¡could¡¡be¡¡waived£»¡¡and¡¡suit¡¡tendered¡¡in¡¡its¡¡place¡£¡¡/5/¡¡Its¡¡conclusive¡¡effect¡¡was¡¡due¡¡to¡¡the¡¡satisfactory¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡the¡¡evidence£»¡¡not¡¡to¡¡the¡¡seal¡£¡¡/6/

But¡¡when¡¡seals¡¡came¡¡into¡¡use¡¡they¡¡obviously¡¡made¡¡the¡¡evidence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡charter¡¡better£»¡¡in¡¡so¡¡far¡¡as¡¡the¡¡seal¡¡was¡¡more¡¡difficult¡¡to¡¡forge¡¡than¡¡a¡¡stroke¡¡of¡¡the¡¡pen¡£¡¡Seals¡¡acquired¡¡such¡¡importance£»¡¡that£»¡¡for¡¡a¡¡time£»¡¡a¡¡man¡¡was¡¡bound¡¡by¡¡his¡¡seal£»¡¡although¡¡it¡¡was¡¡affixed¡¡without¡¡his¡¡consent¡£¡¡/7/¡¡At¡¡last¡¡a¡¡seal¡¡came¡¡to¡¡be¡¡required£»¡¡in¡¡order¡¡that¡¡a¡¡charter¡¡should¡¡have¡¡its¡¡ancient¡¡effect¡£¡¡/8/

A¡¡covenant¡¡or¡¡contract¡¡under¡¡seal¡¡was¡¡no¡¡longer¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡well¡¡proved£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡of¡¡a¡¡distinct¡¡nature£»¡¡for¡¡which¡¡a¡¡distinct¡¡form¡¡of¡¡action¡¡came¡¡to¡¡be¡¡provided¡£¡¡£§273£§¡¡/1/¡¡I¡¡have¡¡shown¡¡how¡¡the¡¡requirement¡¡of¡¡consideration¡¡became¡¡a¡¡rule¡¡of¡¡substantive¡¡law£»¡¡and¡¡also¡¡why¡¡it¡¡never¡¡had¡¡any¡¡foothold¡¡in¡¡the¡¡domain¡¡of¡¡covenants¡£¡¡The¡¡exception¡¡of¡¡covenants¡¡from¡¡the¡¡requirement¡¡became¡¡a¡¡rule¡¡of¡¡substantive¡¡law¡¡also¡£¡¡The¡¡man¡¡who¡¡had¡¡set¡¡his¡¡hand¡¡to¡¡a¡¡charter£»¡¡from¡¡being¡¡bound¡¡because¡¡he¡¡had¡¡consented¡¡to¡¡be£»¡¡and¡¡because¡¡there¡¡was¡¡a¡¡writing¡¡to¡¡prove¡¡it£»¡¡/2/¡¡was¡¡now¡¡held¡¡by¡¡force¡¡of¡¡the¡¡seal¡¡and¡¡by¡¡deed¡¡alone¡¡as¡¡distinguished¡¡from¡¡all¡¡other¡¡writings¡£¡¡And¡¡to¡¡maintain¡¡the¡¡integrity¡¡of¡¡an¡¡inadequate¡¡theory£»¡¡a¡¡seal¡¡was¡¡said¡¡to¡¡a¡¡consideration¡£

Nowadays£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡sometimes¡¡thought¡¡more¡¡philosophical¡¡to¡¡say¡¡that¡¡a¡¡covenant¡¡is¡¡a¡¡formal¡¡contract£»¡¡which¡¡survives¡¡alongside¡¡of¡¡the¡¡ordinary¡¡consensual¡¡contract£»¡¡just¡¡as¡¡happened¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡law¡£¡¡But¡¡this¡¡is¡¡not¡¡a¡¡very¡¡instructive¡¡way¡¡of¡¡putting¡¡it¡¡either¡£¡¡In¡¡one¡¡sense£»¡¡everything¡¡is¡¡form¡¡which¡¡the¡¡law¡¡requires¡¡in¡¡order¡¡to¡¡make¡¡a¡¡promise¡¡binding¡¡over¡¡and¡¡above¡¡the¡¡mere¡¡expression¡¡of¡¡the¡¡promisor's¡¡will¡£¡¡Consideration¡¡is¡¡a¡¡form¡¡as¡¡much¡¡as¡¡a¡¡seal¡£¡¡The¡¡only¡¡difference¡¡is£»¡¡that¡¡one¡¡form¡¡is¡¡of¡¡modern¡¡introduction£»¡¡and¡¡has¡¡a¡¡foundation¡¡in¡¡good¡¡sense£»¡¡or¡¡at¡¡least¡¡in¡¡with¡¡our¡¡common¡¡habits¡¡of¡¡thought£»¡¡so¡¡that¡¡we¡¡do¡¡not¡¡notice¡¡it£»¡¡whereas¡¡the¡¡other¡¡is¡¡a¡¡survival¡¡from¡¡an¡¡older¡¡condition¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law£»¡¡and¡¡is¡¡less¡¡manifestly¡¡sensible£»¡¡or¡¡less¡¡familiar¡£¡¡I¡¡may¡¡add£»¡¡that£»¡¡under¡¡the¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡consideration£»¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡covenants¡¡is¡¡breaking¡¡down¡£¡¡In¡¡many¡¡States¡¡it¡¡is¡¡held¡¡that¡¡a¡¡mere¡¡scroll¡¡or¡¡flourish¡¡of¡¡the¡¡pen¡¡is¡¡a¡¡sufficient¡¡seal¡£¡¡From¡¡this¡¡it¡¡is¡¡a¡¡short¡¡step¡¡to¡¡abolish¡¡the¡¡distinction¡¡between¡¡sealed¡¡and¡¡unsealed¡¡instruments¡¡altogether£»¡¡and¡¡this¡¡has¡¡been¡¡done¡¡in¡¡some

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