Ì«×ÓүС˵Íø > Ó¢Óïµç×ÓÊé > the common law >

µÚ46½Ú

the common law-µÚ46½Ú

С˵£º the common law ×ÖÊý£º ÿҳ4000×Ö

°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡û »ò ¡ú ¿É¿ìËÙÉÏÏ·­Ò³£¬°´¼üÅÌÉ쵀 Enter ¼ü¿É»Øµ½±¾ÊéĿ¼ҳ£¬°´¼üÅÌÉÏ·½Ïò¼ü ¡ü ¿É»Øµ½±¾Ò³¶¥²¿£¡
¡ª¡ª¡ª¡ªÎ´ÔĶÁÍꣿ¼ÓÈëÊéÇ©ÒѱãÏ´μÌÐøÔĶÁ£¡



¡¡counter¡¡oath¡¡the¡¡part¡¡of¡¡the¡¡defendant£»¡¡with¡¡the¡¡same¡¡or¡¡double¡¡the¡¡number¡¡of¡¡fellow¡­swearers¡¡produced¡¡by¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡£¡¡But¡¡a¡¡writing¡¡proved¡¡to¡¡be¡¡the¡¡defendant's¡¡could¡¡not¡¡be¡¡contradicted¡£¡¡£§262£§¡¡/1/¡¡For¡¡if¡¡a¡¡man¡¡said¡¡he¡¡was¡¡bound£»¡¡he¡¡was¡¡bound¡£¡¡There¡¡was¡¡no¡¡question¡¡of¡¡consideration£»¡¡because¡¡there¡¡was¡¡as¡¡yet¡¡no¡¡such¡¡doctrine¡£¡¡He¡¡was¡¡equally¡¡bound¡¡if¡¡he¡¡acknowledged¡¡all¡¡obligation¡¡in¡¡any¡¡place¡¡having¡¡a¡¡record£»¡¡such¡¡as¡¡the¡¡superior¡¡courts£»¡¡by¡¡which¡¡his¡¡acknowledgment¡¡could¡¡be¡¡proved¡£¡¡Indeed£»¡¡to¡¡this¡¡day¡¡some¡¡securities¡¡are¡¡taken¡¡simply¡¡by¡¡an¡¡oral¡¡admission¡¡before¡¡the¡¡clerk¡¡of¡¡a¡¡court¡¡noted¡¡by¡¡him¡¡in¡¡his¡¡papers¡£¡¡The¡¡advantage¡¡of¡¡the¡¡writing¡¡was¡¡not¡¡only¡¡that¡¡it¡¡furnished¡¡better¡¡proof¡¡in¡¡the¡¡old¡¡cases£»¡¡but¡¡also¡¡that¡¡it¡¡made¡¡it¡¡possible¡¡to¡¡enforce¡¡obligations¡¡for¡¡which¡¡there¡¡would¡¡otherwise¡¡have¡¡been¡¡no¡¡proof¡¡at¡¡all¡£

What¡¡has¡¡been¡¡said¡¡sufficiently¡¡explains¡¡the¡¡preference¡¡of¡¡proof¡¡by¡¡writing¡¡to¡¡proof¡¡by¡¡the¡¡old¡­fashioned¡¡witness¡¡oath¡£¡¡But¡¡there¡¡were¡¡other¡¡equally¡¡good¡¡reasons¡¡why¡¡the¡¡latter¡¡should¡¡not¡¡be¡¡extended¡¡beyond¡¡its¡¡ancient¡¡limits¡£¡¡The¡¡transaction¡¡witnesses¡¡were¡¡losing¡¡their¡¡statutory¡¡and¡¡official¡¡character¡£¡¡Already¡¡in¡¡Glanvill's¡¡time¡¡the¡¡usual¡¡modes¡¡of¡¡proving¡¡a¡¡debt¡¡were¡¡by¡¡the¡¡duel¡¡or¡¡by¡¡writing¡£¡¡/2/¡¡A¡¡hundred¡¡years¡¡later¡¡Bracton¡¡shows¡¡that¡¡the¡¡secta¡¡had¡¡degenerated¡¡to¡¡the¡¡retainers¡¡and¡¡household¡¡of¡¡the¡¡party£»¡¡and¡¡he¡¡says¡¡that¡¡their¡¡oath¡¡raises¡¡but¡¡a¡¡slight¡¡presumption¡£¡¡/3/

Moreover£»¡¡a¡¡new¡¡mode¡¡of¡¡trial¡¡was¡¡growing¡¡up£»¡¡which£»¡¡although¡¡it¡¡was¡¡not¡¡made¡¡use¡¡of¡¡in¡¡these¡¡cases¡¡/4/¡¡for¡¡a¡¡good¡¡while£»¡¡must¡¡have¡¡tended¡¡to¡¡diminish¡¡the¡¡estimate¡¡set¡¡on¡¡the¡¡witness¡¡oath¡¡by¡¡contrast¡£¡¡This¡¡was¡¡the¡¡beginning¡¡of¡¡our¡¡trial¡¡by¡¡jury¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡at¡¡first¡¡an¡¡inquest¡¡of¡¡the¡¡neighbors¡¡£§263£§¡¡most¡¡likely¡¡to¡¡know¡¡about¡¡a¡¡disputed¡¡matter¡¡of¡¡fact¡£¡¡They¡¡spoke¡¡from¡¡their¡¡own¡¡knowledge£»¡¡but¡¡they¡¡were¡¡selected¡¡by¡¡an¡¡officer¡¡of¡¡the¡¡court¡¡instead¡¡of¡¡by¡¡the¡¡interested¡¡party£»¡¡and¡¡were¡¡intended¡¡to¡¡be¡¡impartial¡£¡¡/1/¡¡Soon¡¡witnesses¡¡were¡¡summoned¡¡before¡¡them£»¡¡not£»¡¡as¡¡of¡¡old£»¡¡to¡¡the¡¡case¡¡by¡¡their¡¡oath£»¡¡but¡¡to¡¡aid¡¡the¡¡inquest¡¡to¡¡find¡¡a¡¡verdict¡¡by¡¡their¡¡testimony¡£¡¡With¡¡the¡¡advent¡¡of¡¡this¡¡enlightened¡¡procedure£»¡¡the¡¡secta¡¡soon¡¡ceased¡¡to¡¡decide¡¡the¡¡case£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡may¡¡well¡¡be¡¡asked¡¡why¡¡it¡¡did¡¡not¡¡disappear¡¡and¡¡leave¡¡no¡¡traces¡£

Taking¡¡into¡¡account¡¡the¡¡conservatism¡¡of¡¡the¡¡English¡¡law£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that£»¡¡before¡¡deeds¡¡came¡¡in£»¡¡the¡¡only¡¡debts¡¡for¡¡which¡¡there¡¡had¡¡been¡¡a¡¡remedy¡¡were¡¡debts¡¡proved¡¡by¡¡the¡¡transaction¡¡witnesses£»¡¡it¡¡would¡¡not¡¡have¡¡been¡¡a¡¡surprise¡¡to¡¡find¡¡the¡¡tender¡¡of¡¡suit¡¡persisting¡¡in¡¡those¡¡cases¡£¡¡But¡¡there¡¡was¡¡another¡¡reason¡¡still¡¡more¡¡imperative¡£¡¡The¡¡defence¡¡in¡¡debt¡¡where¡¡there¡¡was¡¡no¡¡deed¡¡was¡¡by¡¡wager¡¡of¡¡law¡£¡¡/2/¡¡A¡¡section¡¡of¡¡Magna¡¡Charta¡¡was¡¡interpreted¡¡to¡¡prohibit¡¡a¡¡man's¡¡being¡¡put¡¡to¡¡his¡¡law¡¡on¡¡the¡¡plaintiff's¡¡own¡¡statement¡¡without¡¡good¡¡witness¡£¡¡/3/¡¡Hence£»¡¡the¡¡statute¡¡required¡¡witnessthat¡¡is£»¡¡the¡¡sectain¡¡every¡¡case¡¡of¡¡debt¡¡where¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡¡did¡¡not¡¡rely¡¡upon¡¡a¡¡writing¡£¡¡Thus¡¡it¡¡happened¡¡that¡¡suit¡¡continued¡¡to¡¡be¡¡tendered¡¡in¡¡those¡¡cases¡¡where¡¡it¡¡had¡¡been¡¡of¡¡old£»¡¡/4/¡¡and¡¡as¡¡the¡¡defendant£»¡¡if¡¡he¡¡did¡¡not¡¡admit¡¡the¡¡debt¡¡in¡¡such¡¡cases£»¡¡always¡¡waged¡¡his¡¡law£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡long¡¡before¡¡the¡¡inquest¡¡got¡¡much¡¡foothold¡£

To¡¡establish¡¡a¡¡debt¡¡which¡¡arose¡¡merely¡¡by¡¡way¡¡of¡¡promise¡¡or¡¡acknowledgment£»¡¡and¡¡for¡¡which¡¡there¡¡had¡¡formerly¡¡£§264£§¡¡been¡¡no¡¡mode¡¡of¡¡trial¡¡provided£»¡¡you¡¡must¡¡have¡¡a¡¡writing£»¡¡the¡¡new¡¡form¡¡of¡¡proof¡¡which¡¡introduced¡¡it¡¡into¡¡the¡¡law¡£¡¡The¡¡rule¡¡was¡¡laid¡¡down£»¡¡¡¨by¡¡parol¡¡the¡¡party¡¡is¡¡not¡¡obliged¡£¡¨¡¡/1/¡¡But¡¡the¡¡old¡¡debts¡¡were¡¡not¡¡conceived¡¡of¡¡as¡¡raised¡¡by¡¡a¡¡promise¡£¡¡/2/¡¡They¡¡were¡¡a¡¡¡¨duty¡¨¡¡springing¡¡from¡¡the¡¡plaintiff's¡¡receipt¡¡of¡¡property£»¡¡a¡¡fact¡¡which¡¡could¡¡be¡¡seen¡¡and¡¡sworn¡¡to¡£¡¡In¡¡these¡¡cases¡¡the¡¡old¡¡law¡¡maintained¡¡and¡¡even¡¡extended¡¡itself¡¡a¡¡little¡¡by¡¡strict¡¡analogy¡£

But¡¡the¡¡undertaking¡¡of¡¡a¡¡surety£»¡¡in¡¡whatever¡¡form¡¡it¡¡was¡¡clothed£»¡¡did¡¡not¡¡really¡¡arise¡¡out¡¡of¡¡any¡¡such¡¡fact¡£¡¡It¡¡had¡¡become¡¡of¡¡the¡¡same¡¡nature¡¡as¡¡other¡¡promises£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡was¡¡soon¡¡doubted¡¡whether¡¡it¡¡should¡¡not¡¡be¡¡proved¡¡by¡¡the¡¡same¡¡evidence¡£¡¡/3/¡¡By¡¡the¡¡reign¡¡of¡¡Edward¡¡III¡££»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡settled¡¡that¡¡a¡¡deed¡¡was¡¡necessary£»¡¡/4/¡¡except¡¡where¡¡the¡¡customs¡¡of¡¡particular¡¡cities¡¡had¡¡kept¡¡the¡¡old¡¡law¡¡in¡¡force¡£¡¡/5/

This¡¡reign¡¡may¡¡be¡¡taken¡¡as¡¡representing¡¡the¡¡time¡¡when¡¡the¡¡divisions¡¡and¡¡rules¡¡of¡¡procedure¡¡were¡¡established¡¡which¡¡have¡¡lasted¡¡until¡¡the¡¡present¡¡day¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡therefore¡¡worth¡¡while¡¡to¡¡repeat¡¡and¡¡sum¡¡up¡¡the¡¡condition¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡¡at¡¡that¡¡time¡£

It¡¡was¡¡still¡¡necessary¡¡that¡¡the¡¡secta¡¡should¡¡be¡¡tendered¡¡in¡¡every¡¡action¡¡of¡¡debt¡¡for¡¡which¡¡no¡¡writing¡¡was¡¡produced¡£¡¡For¡¡this£»¡¡as¡¡well¡¡as¡¡for¡¡the¡¡other¡¡reasons¡¡which¡¡have¡¡been¡¡mentioned£»¡¡the¡¡sphere¡¡of¡¡such¡¡actions¡¡was¡¡not¡¡materially¡¡enlarged¡¡beyond¡¡those¡¡cases¡¡which¡¡had¡¡formerly¡¡been¡¡established¡¡by¡¡the¡¡witness¡­¡¡oath¡£¡¡As¡¡suretyship¡¡was¡¡no¡¡£§265£§¡¡longer¡¡one¡¡of¡¡these£»¡¡they¡¡became¡¡strictly¡¡limited¡¡to¡¡cases¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡debt¡¡arose¡¡from¡¡the¡¡receipt¡¡of¡¡a¡¡quid¡¡pro¡¡quo¡£¡¡Moreover¡¡there¡¡was¡¡no¡¡other¡¡action¡¡of¡¡contract¡¡which¡¡could¡¡be¡¡maintained¡¡without¡¡a¡¡writing¡£¡¡New¡¡species¡¡of¡¡contracts¡¡were¡¡now¡¡enforced¡¡by¡¡an¡¡action¡¡of¡¡covenant£»¡¡but¡¡there¡¡a¡¡deed¡¡was¡¡always¡¡necessary¡£¡¡At¡¡the¡¡same¡¡time¡¡the¡¡secta¡¡had¡¡shrunk¡¡to¡¡a¡¡form£»¡¡although¡¡it¡¡was¡¡still¡¡argued¡¡that¡¡its¡¡function¡¡was¡¡more¡¡important¡¡in¡¡contract¡¡than¡¡elsewhere¡£¡¡It¡¡could¡¡no¡¡longer¡¡be¡¡examined¡¡before¡¡the¡¡court¡£¡¡/1/¡¡It¡¡was¡¡a¡¡mere¡¡survival£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡transaction¡¡witness¡¡had¡¡ceased¡¡to¡¡be¡¡an¡¡institution¡£¡¡Hence£»¡¡the¡¡necessity¡¡of¡¡tendering¡¡the¡¡witness¡¡oath¡¡did¡¡not¡¡fix¡¡the¡¡limit¡¡of¡¡debt¡¡upon¡¡simple¡¡contract¡¡except¡¡by¡¡tradition£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡surprising¡¡to¡¡find¡¡that¡¡the¡¡action¡¡was¡¡slightly¡¡extended¡¡by¡¡analogy¡¡from¡¡its¡¡scope¡¡in¡¡Glanvill's¡¡time¡£

But¡¡debt¡¡remained¡¡substantially¡¡at¡¡the¡¡point¡¡which¡¡I¡¡have¡¡indicated£»¡¡and¡¡no¡¡new¡¡action¡¡available¡¡for¡¡simple¡¡contracts¡¡was¡¡introduced¡¡for¡¡a¡¡century¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡mean¡¡time¡¡the¡¡inversion¡¡which¡¡I¡¡have¡¡explained¡¡took¡¡place£»¡¡and¡¡what¡¡was¡¡an¡¡accident¡¡of¡¡procedure¡¡had¡¡become¡¡a¡¡doctrine¡¡of¡¡substantive¡¡law¡£¡¡The¡¡change¡¡was¡¡easy¡¡when¡¡the¡¡debts¡¡which¡¡could¡¡be¡¡enforced¡¡without¡¡deed¡¡all¡¡sprung¡¡from¡¡a¡¡benefit¡¡to¡¡the¡¡debtor¡£

The¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡law£»¡¡no¡¡doubt£»¡¡aided¡¡in¡¡bringing¡¡about¡¡this¡¡result¡£¡¡It¡¡will¡¡be¡¡remembered¡¡that¡¡in¡¡the¡¡reign¡¡of¡¡Henry¡¡II¡£¡¡most¡¡simple¡¡contracts¡¡and¡¡debts¡¡for¡¡which¡¡there¡¡was¡¡not¡¡the¡¡evidence¡¡of¡¡deed¡¡or¡¡witness¡¡were¡¡left¡¡to¡¡be¡¡enforced¡¡by¡¡the¡¡ecclesiastical¡¡courts£»¡¡so¡¡far¡¡as¡¡their¡¡jurisdiction¡¡extended¡£¡¡/2/¡¡Perhaps¡¡it¡¡was¡¡this¡¡circumstance¡¡£§266£§¡¡which¡¡led¡¡Glanvill¡¡and¡¡his¡¡successors¡¡to¡¡apply¡¡the¡¡terminology¡¡of¡¡the¡¡civilians¡¡to¡¡common¡­law¡¡debts¡£¡¡But¡¡whether¡¡he¡¡borrowed¡¡it¡¡from¡¡the¡¡ecclesiastical¡¡courts£»¡¡or¡¡went¡¡directly¡¡to¡¡the¡¡fountain¡­¡¡head£»¡¡certain¡¡it¡¡is¡¡that¡¡Glanvill¡¡makes¡¡use¡¡of¡¡the¡¡classification¡¡and¡¡technical¡¡language¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Corpus¡¡Juris¡¡throughout¡¡his¡¡tenth¡¡book¡£

There¡¡were¡¡certain¡¡special¡¡contracts¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡system¡¡called¡¡real£»¡¡which¡¡bound¡¡the¡¡contractor¡¡either¡¡to¡¡return¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡thing¡¡put¡¡into¡¡his¡¡hands¡¡by¡¡the¡¡contractee£»¡¡as¡¡in¡¡a¡¡case¡¡of¡¡lease¡¡or¡¡loan£»¡¡or¡¡to¡¡deliver¡¡other¡¡articles¡¡of¡¡the¡¡same¡¡kind£»¡¡as¡¡when¡¡grain£»¡¡oil£»¡¡or¡¡money¡¡was¡¡lent¡£¡¡This¡¡class¡¡did¡¡not¡¡correspond£»¡¡except¡¡in¡¡the¡¡most¡¡superficial¡¡way£»¡¡with¡¡the¡¡common¡­law¡¡debts¡£¡¡But¡¡Glanvill¡¡adopted¡¡the¡¡nomenclature£»¡¡and¡¡later¡¡writers¡¡began¡¡to¡¡draw¡¡conclusions¡¡from¡¡it¡£¡¡The¡¡author¡¡of¡¡Fleta£»¡¡a¡¡writer¡¡by¡¡no¡¡means¡¡always¡¡intelligent¡¡in¡¡following¡¡and¡¡adopting¡¡his¡¡predecessors'¡¡use¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡law£»¡¡/1/¡¡says¡¡that¡¡to¡¡raise¡¡a¡¡debt¡¡there¡¡must¡¡be¡¡not¡¡only¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡thing¡¡promised£»¡¡but¡¡a¡¡certain¡¡thing¡¡promised¡¡in¡¡return¡£¡¡/2/

If¡¡Fleta¡¡had¡¡confined¡¡his¡¡statement¡¡to¡¡debts¡¡by¡¡simple¡¡contract£»¡¡it¡¡might¡¡well¡¡have¡¡been¡¡suggested¡¡by¡¡the¡¡existing¡¡state¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡£¡¡But¡¡as¡¡he¡¡also¡¡required¡¡a¡¡writing¡¡and¡¡a¡¡seal£»¡¡in¡¡addition¡¡to¡¡the¡¡matter¡¡given¡¡or¡¡promised¡¡in¡¡return£»¡¡the¡¡doctrine¡¡laid¡¡down¡¡by¡¡him¡¡can¡¡hardly¡¡have¡¡prevailed¡¡at¡¡any¡¡time¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡probably¡¡nothing¡¡more¡¡than¡¡a¡¡slight¡¡vagary¡¡of¡¡reasoning¡¡based¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡elements¡¡which¡¡he¡¡borrowed¡¡from¡¡Bracton¡£

£§267£§¡¡It¡¡only¡¡remains¡¡to¡¡trace¡¡the¡¡gradual¡¡appearance¡¡of¡¡consideration¡¡in¡¡the¡¡decisions¡£¡¡A¡¡case¡¡of¡¡the¡¡reign¡¡of¡¡Edward¡¡III¡£¡¡/1/¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡distinguish¡¡between¡¡a¡¡parol¡¡obligation¡¡founded¡¡on¡¡voluntary¡¡payments¡¡by¡¡the¡¡obligee¡¡and¡¡one¡¡founded¡¡on¡¡a¡¡payment¡¡at¡¡the¡¡obligor's¡¡request¡£¡¡It¡¡also¡¡speaks¡¡of¡¡the¡¡debt¡¡or¡¡¡¨duty¡¨¡¡in¡¡that¡¡case¡¡as¡¡arising¡¡by¡¡cause¡¡of¡¡payments¡£¡¡Somewhat¡¡similar¡¡language¡¡is¡¡used¡¡in¡¡the¡¡next¡¡reign¡£¡¡/2/¡¡So£»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡twelfth¡¡year¡¡of¡¡Henry¡¡IV¡££»¡¡/3/¡¡there¡¡is¡¡an¡¡approach¡¡to¡¡the¡¡thought£º¡¡¡¨If¡¡money¡¡is¡¡promised¡¡to¡¡a¡¡man¡¡for¡¡making¡¡a¡¡release£»¡¡and¡¡he¡¡makes¡¡the¡¡release£»¡¡he¡¡will¡¡have¡¡a¡¡good¡¡action¡¡of¡¡debt¡¡in¡¡the¡¡matter¡£¡¨¡¡In¡¡the¡¡next¡¡reign¡¡/4/¡¡it¡¡was¡¡decided¡¡that£»¡¡in¡¡such¡¡a¡¡case£»¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡¡could¡¡not¡¡recover¡¡without¡¡having¡¡executed¡¡the¡¡release£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡explained¡¡by¡¡the¡¡editor¡¡on¡¡the¡¡ground¡¡that¡¡ex¡¡nudo¡¡pacto¡¡non¡¡oritur¡¡actio¡£¡¡But¡¡the¡¡most¡¡important¡¡fact¡¡is£»¡¡that¡¡from¡¡Edward¡¡I¡£¡¡to¡¡Henry¡¡VI¡£¡¡we¡¡find¡¡no¡¡case¡¡where¡¡a¡¡debt¡¡was¡¡recovered£»¡¡unless¡¡a¡¡consideration¡¡had¡¡in¡¡fact¡¡been¡¡received¡£

Another¡¡fact¡¡to¡¡be¡¡noticed¡¡is£»¡¡that¡¡since¡¡Edward¡¡III¡£¡¡debts¡¡arising¡¡from¡¡a¡¡transaction¡¡without¡¡writing¡¡are¡¡said¡¡to¡¡arise¡¡from¡¡contract£»¡¡as¡¡distinguished¡¡from¡¡debts¡¡arising¡¡from¡¡an¡¡obligation¡£¡¡/5/¡¡Hence£»¡¡when¡¡consideration¡¡was¡¡required¡¡as¡¡such£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡required¡¡in¡¡contracts¡¡not¡¡under¡¡seal£»¡¡whether¡¡debts¡¡or¡¡not¡£¡¡Under¡¡Henry¡¡VI¡£¡¡quid¡¡pro¡¡quo¡¡became¡¡a¡¡necessity¡¡in¡¡all¡¡such¡¡contracts¡£¡¡In¡¡the¡¡third¡¡year¡¡of¡¡that¡¡reign¡¡/6/¡¡it¡¡was¡¡objected¡¡to¡¡au¡¡action¡¡upon¡¡an¡¡£§268£§¡¡assumpsit¡¡for¡¡not¡¡building¡¡a¡¡mill£»¡¡that¡¡it¡¡was¡¡not¡¡shown¡¡what¡¡th

·µ»ØĿ¼ ÉÏÒ»Ò³ ÏÂÒ»Ò³ »Øµ½¶¥²¿ ÔÞ£¨0£© ²È£¨0£©

Äã¿ÉÄÜϲ»¶µÄ