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ng¡¡that¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡was¡¡free¡¡from¡¡negligence£»¡¡should¡¡have¡¡been¡¡spread¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡record£»¡¡in¡¡order¡¡that¡¡the¡¡court¡¡might¡¡judge¡£¡¡A¡¡similar¡¡requirement¡¡was¡¡laid¡¡down¡¡with¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡the¡¡defence¡¡of¡¡probable¡¡cause¡¡in¡¡an¡¡action¡¡for¡¡malicious¡¡prosecution¡£¡¡/2/¡¡And¡¡to¡¡this¡¡day¡¡the¡¡question¡¡of¡¡probable¡¡cause¡¡is¡¡always¡¡passed¡¡on¡¡by¡¡the¡¡court¡£¡¡Later¡¡evidence¡¡will¡¡be¡¡found¡¡in¡¡what¡¡follows¡£

There¡¡is£»¡¡however£»¡¡an¡¡important¡¡consideration£»¡¡which¡¡has¡¡not¡¡yet¡¡been¡¡adverted¡¡to¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡undoubtedly¡¡possible¡¡that¡¡those¡¡who¡¡have¡¡the¡¡making¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡¡should¡¡deem¡¡it¡¡¡¨wise¡¡to¡¡put¡¡the¡¡mark¡¡higher¡¡in¡¡some¡¡cases¡¡than¡¡the¡¡point¡¡established¡¡by¡¡common¡¡practice¡¡at¡¡which¡¡blameworthiness¡¡begins¡£¡¡For¡¡instance£»¡¡in¡¡Morris¡¡v¡£¡¡Platt£»¡¡/2/¡¡the¡¡court£»¡¡while¡¡declaring¡¡in¡¡the¡¡strongest¡¡terms¡¡that£»¡¡in¡¡general£»¡¡£§116£§¡¡negligence¡¡is¡¡the¡¡foundation¡¡of¡¡liability¡¡for¡¡accidental¡¡trespasses£»¡¡nevertheless¡¡hints¡¡that£»¡¡if¡¡a¡¡decision¡¡of¡¡the¡¡point¡¡were¡¡necessary£»¡¡it¡¡might¡¡hold¡¡a¡¡defendant¡¡to¡¡a¡¡stricter¡¡rule¡¡where¡¡the¡¡damage¡¡was¡¡caused¡¡by¡¡a¡¡pistol£»¡¡in¡¡view¡¡of¡¡the¡¡danger¡¡to¡¡the¡¡public¡¡of¡¡the¡¡growing¡¡habit¡¡of¡¡carrying¡¡deadly¡¡weapons¡£¡¡Again£»¡¡it¡¡might¡¡well¡¡seem¡¡that¡¡to¡¡enter¡¡a¡¡man's¡¡house¡¡for¡¡the¡¡purpose¡¡of¡¡carrying¡¡a¡¡present£»¡¡or¡¡inquiring¡¡after¡¡his¡¡health¡¡when¡¡he¡¡was¡¡ill£»¡¡was¡¡a¡¡harmless¡¡and¡¡rather¡¡praiseworthy¡¡act£»¡¡although¡¡crossing¡¡the¡¡owner's¡¡boundary¡¡was¡¡intentional¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡not¡¡supposed¡¡that¡¡an¡¡action¡¡would¡¡lie¡¡at¡¡the¡¡present¡¡day¡¡for¡¡such¡¡a¡¡cause£»¡¡unless¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡had¡¡been¡¡forbidden¡¡the¡¡house¡£¡¡Yet¡¡in¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡Henry¡¡VIII¡£¡¡it¡¡was¡¡said¡¡to¡¡be¡¡actionable¡¡if¡¡without¡¡license£»¡¡¡¨for¡¡then¡¡under¡¡that¡¡color¡¡my¡¡enemy¡¡might¡¡be¡¡in¡¡my¡¡house¡¡and¡¡kill¡¡me¡£¡¨¡¡/1/¡¡There¡¡is¡¡a¡¡clear¡¡case¡¡where¡¡public¡¡policy¡¡establishes¡¡a¡¡standard¡¡of¡¡overt¡¡acts¡¡without¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡fault¡¡in¡¡any¡¡sense¡£¡¡In¡¡like¡¡manner£»¡¡policy¡¡established¡¡exceptions¡¡to¡¡the¡¡general¡¡prohibition¡¡against¡¡entering¡¡another's¡¡premises£»¡¡as¡¡in¡¡the¡¡instance¡¡put¡¡by¡¡Chief¡¡Justice¡¡Choke¡¡in¡¡the¡¡Year¡¡Book£»¡¡of¡¡a¡¡tree¡¡being¡¡blown¡¡over¡¡upon¡¡them£»¡¡or¡¡when¡¡the¡¡highway¡¡became¡¡impassable£»¡¡or¡¡for¡¡the¡¡purpose¡¡of¡¡keeping¡¡the¡¡peace¡£¡¡/2/

Another¡¡example¡¡may¡¡perhaps¡¡be¡¡found¡¡in¡¡the¡¡shape¡¡which¡¡has¡¡been¡¡given¡¡in¡¡modern¡¡times¡¡to¡¡the¡¡liability¡¡for¡¡animals£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡the¡¡derivative¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡Rylands¡¡v¡£¡¡Fletcher£»¡¡/3/¡¡that¡¡when¡¡a¡¡person¡¡brings¡¡on¡¡his¡¡lands£»¡¡and¡¡collects¡¡and¡¡keeps¡¡there£»¡¡anything¡¡likely¡¡to¡¡do¡¡mischief¡¡if¡¡it¡¡escapes£»¡¡he¡¡must¡¡keep¡¡it¡¡in¡¡at¡¡his¡¡peril£»¡¡and£»¡¡if¡¡he¡¡does¡¡not¡¡do¡¡so£»¡¡is¡¡prima¡¡facie¡¡answerable¡¡for¡¡all¡¡the¡¡£§117£§¡¡damage¡¡which¡¡is¡¡the¡¡natural¡¡consequence¡¡of¡¡its¡¡escape¡£¡¡Cases¡¡of¡¡this¡¡sort¡¡do¡¡not¡¡stand¡¡on¡¡the¡¡notion¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡wrong¡¡to¡¡keep¡¡cattle£»¡¡or¡¡to¡¡have¡¡a¡¡reservoir¡¡of¡¡water£»¡¡as¡¡might¡¡have¡¡been¡¡thought¡¡with¡¡more¡¡plausibility¡¡when¡¡fierce¡¡and¡¡useless¡¡animals¡¡only¡¡were¡¡in¡¡question¡£¡¡/1/¡¡It¡¡may¡¡even¡¡be¡¡very¡¡much¡¡for¡¡the¡¡public¡¡good¡¡that¡¡the¡¡dangerous¡¡accumulation¡¡should¡¡be¡¡made¡¡£¨a¡¡consideration¡¡which¡¡might¡¡influence¡¡the¡¡decision¡¡in¡¡some¡¡instances£»¡¡and¡¡differently¡¡in¡¡different¡¡jurisdictions£©£»¡¡but¡¡as¡¡there¡¡is¡¡a¡¡limit¡¡to¡¡the¡¡nicety¡¡of¡¡inquiry¡¡which¡¡is¡¡possible¡¡in¡¡a¡¡trial£»¡¡it¡¡may¡¡be¡¡considered¡¡that¡¡the¡¡safest¡¡way¡¡to¡¡secure¡¡care¡¡is¡¡to¡¡throw¡¡the¡¡risk¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡person¡¡who¡¡decides¡¡what¡¡precautions¡¡shall¡¡be¡¡taken¡£¡¡The¡¡liability¡¡for¡¡trespasses¡¡of¡¡cattle¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡lie¡¡on¡¡the¡¡boundary¡¡line¡¡between¡¡rules¡¡based¡¡on¡¡policy¡¡irrespective¡¡of¡¡fault£»¡¡and¡¡requirements¡¡intended¡¡to¡¡formulate¡¡the¡¡conduct¡¡of¡¡a¡¡prudent¡¡man¡£

It¡¡has¡¡been¡¡shown¡¡in¡¡the¡¡first¡¡Lecture¡¡how¡¡this¡¡liability¡¡for¡¡cattle¡¡arose¡¡in¡¡the¡¡early¡¡law£»¡¡and¡¡how¡¡far¡¡the¡¡influence¡¡of¡¡early¡¡notions¡¡might¡¡be¡¡traced¡¡in¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡today£»¡¡Subject¡¡to¡¡what¡¡is¡¡there¡¡said£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡evident¡¡that¡¡the¡¡early¡¡discussions¡¡turn¡¡on¡¡the¡¡general¡¡consideration¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡owner¡¡is¡¡or¡¡is¡¡not¡¡to¡¡blame¡£¡¡/2/¡¡But¡¡they¡¡do¡¡not¡¡stop¡¡there£º¡¡they¡¡go¡¡on¡¡to¡¡take¡¡practical¡¡distinctions£»¡¡based¡¡on¡¡common¡¡experience¡£¡¡Thus£»¡¡when¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡chased¡¡sheep¡¡out¡¡of¡¡his¡¡land¡¡with¡¡a¡¡dog£»¡¡and¡¡as¡¡soon¡¡as¡¡the¡¡sheep¡¡were¡¡out¡¡called¡¡in¡¡his¡¡dog£»¡¡but¡¡the¡¡dog¡¡pursued¡¡them¡¡into¡¡adjoining¡¡land£»¡¡the¡¡chasing¡¡of¡¡the¡¡sheep¡¡beyond¡¡the¡¡defendant's¡¡line¡¡was¡¡held¡¡no¡¡trespass£»¡¡because¡¡¡¨the¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡a¡¡dog¡¡is¡¡such¡¡that¡¡he¡¡cannot¡¡be¡¡ruled¡¡suddenly¡£¡¨¡¡/3/

£§118£§¡¡It¡¡was¡¡lawful¡¡in¡¡ploughing¡¡to¡¡turn¡¡the¡¡horses¡¡on¡¡adjoining¡¡land£»¡¡and¡¡if¡¡while¡¡so¡¡turning¡¡the¡¡beasts¡¡took¡¡a¡¡mouthful¡¡of¡¡grass£»¡¡or¡¡subverted¡¡the¡¡soil¡¡with¡¡the¡¡plough£»¡¡against¡¡the¡¡will¡¡of¡¡the¡¡driver£»¡¡he¡¡had¡¡a¡¡good¡¡justification£»¡¡because¡¡the¡¡law¡¡will¡¡recognize¡¡that¡¡a¡¡man¡¡cannot¡¡at¡¡every¡¡instant¡¡govern¡¡his¡¡cattle¡¡as¡¡he¡¡will¡£¡¡/1/¡¡So¡¡it¡¡was¡¡said¡¡that£»¡¡if¡¡a¡¡man¡¡be¡¡driving¡¡cattle¡¡through¡¡a¡¡town£»¡¡and¡¡one¡¡of¡¡them¡¡goes¡¡into¡¡another¡¡man's¡¡house£»¡¡and¡¡he¡¡follows¡¡him£»¡¡trespass¡¡does¡¡not¡¡lie¡¡for¡¡this¡£¡¡/2/¡¡So¡¡it¡¡was¡¡said¡¡by¡¡Doderidge£»¡¡J¡££»¡¡in¡¡the¡¡same¡¡case£»¡¡that¡¡if¡¡deer¡¡come¡¡into¡¡my¡¡land¡¡out¡¡of¡¡the¡¡forest£»¡¡and¡¡I¡¡chase¡¡them¡¡with¡¡dogs£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡excuse¡¡enough¡¡for¡¡me¡¡to¡¡wind¡¡my¡¡horn¡¡to¡¡recall¡¡the¡¡dogs£»¡¡because¡¡by¡¡this¡¡the¡¡warden¡¡of¡¡the¡¡forest¡¡has¡¡notice¡¡that¡¡a¡¡deer¡¡is¡¡being¡¡chased¡£¡¡/3/

The¡¡very¡¡case¡¡of¡¡Mason¡¡v¡£¡¡Keeling£»¡¡/4/¡¡which¡¡is¡¡referred¡¡to¡¡in¡¡the¡¡first¡¡Lecture¡¡for¡¡its¡¡echo¡¡of¡¡primitive¡¡notions£»¡¡shows¡¡that¡¡the¡¡working¡¡rules¡¡of¡¡the¡¡law¡¡had¡¡long¡¡been¡¡founded¡¡on¡¡good¡¡sense¡£¡¡With¡¡regard¡¡to¡¡animals¡¡not¡¡then¡¡treated¡¡as¡¡property£»¡¡which¡¡in¡¡the¡¡main¡¡were¡¡the¡¡wilder¡¡animals£»¡¡the¡¡law¡¡was¡¡settled¡¡that£»¡¡¡¨if¡¡they¡¡are¡¡of¡¡a¡¡tame¡¡nature£»¡¡there¡¡must¡¡be¡¡notice¡¡of¡¡the¡¡ill¡¡quality£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡law¡¡takes¡¡notice£»¡¡that¡¡a¡¡dog¡¡is¡¡not¡¡of¡¡a¡¡fierce¡¡nature£»¡¡but¡¡rather¡¡the¡¡contrary¡£¡¨¡¡/5/¡¡If¡¡the¡¡animals¡¡¡¨are¡¡such¡¡as¡¡are¡¡naturally¡¡£§119£§¡¡mischievous¡¡in¡¡their¡¡kind£»¡¡he¡¡shall¡¡answer¡¡for¡¡hurt¡¡done¡¡by¡¡them£»¡¡without¡¡any¡¡notice¡£¡¨¡¡/1/¡¡The¡¡latter¡¡principle¡¡has¡¡been¡¡applied¡¡to¡¡the¡¡case¡¡of¡¡a¡¡bear£»¡¡/2/¡¡and¡¡amply¡¡accounts¡¡for¡¡the¡¡liability¡¡of¡¡the¡¡owner¡¡of¡¡such¡¡animals¡¡as¡¡horses¡¡and¡¡oxen¡¡in¡¡respect¡¡of¡¡trespasses¡¡upon¡¡land£»¡¡although£»¡¡as¡¡has¡¡been¡¡seen£»¡¡it¡¡was¡¡at¡¡one¡¡time¡¡thought¡¡to¡¡stand¡¡upon¡¡his¡¡ownership¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡said¡¡to¡¡be¡¡the¡¡universal¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡cattle¡¡to¡¡stray£»¡¡and£»¡¡when¡¡straying¡¡in¡¡cultivated¡¡land£»¡¡to¡¡do¡¡damage¡¡by¡¡trampling¡¡down¡¡and¡¡eating¡¡the¡¡crops£»¡¡whereas¡¡a¡¡dog¡¡does¡¡no¡¡harm¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡also¡¡said¡¡to¡¡be¡¡usual¡¡and¡¡easy¡¡to¡¡restrain¡¡them¡£¡¡/3/¡¡If£»¡¡as¡¡has¡¡been¡¡suggested£»¡¡the¡¡historical¡¡origin¡¡of¡¡the¡¡rule¡¡was¡¡different£»¡¡it¡¡does¡¡not¡¡matter¡£

Following¡¡the¡¡same¡¡line¡¡of¡¡thought£»¡¡the¡¡owner¡¡of¡¡cattle¡¡is¡¡not¡¡held¡¡absolutely¡¡answerable¡¡for¡¡all¡¡damage¡¡which¡¡they¡¡may¡¡do¡¡the¡¡person¡£¡¡According¡¡to¡¡Lord¡¡Holt¡¡in¡¡the¡¡alcove¡¡opinion£»¡¡these¡¡animals£»¡¡¡¨which¡¡are¡¡not¡¡so¡¡familiar¡¡to¡¡mankind¡¨¡¡as¡¡dogs£»¡¡¡¨the¡¡owner¡¡ought¡¡to¡¡confine£»¡¡and¡¡take¡¡all¡¡reasonable¡¡caution¡¡that¡¡they¡¡do¡¡no¡¡mischief¡£¡£¡£¡£¡¡But¡¡¡£¡£¡£¡¡if¡¡the¡¡owner¡¡puts¡¡a¡¡horse¡¡or¡¡an¡¡ox¡¡to¡¡grass¡¡in¡¡his¡¡field£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡adjoining¡¡to¡¡the¡¡highway£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡horse¡¡or¡¡the¡¡ox¡¡breaks¡¡the¡¡hedge¡¡and¡¡runs¡¡into¡¡the¡¡highway£»¡¡and¡¡kicks¡¡or¡¡gores¡¡some¡¡passenger£»¡¡an¡¡action¡¡will¡¡not¡¡lie¡¡against¡¡the¡¡owner£»¡¡otherwise£»¡¡if¡¡he¡¡had¡¡notice¡¡that¡¡they¡¡had¡¡done¡¡such¡¡a¡¡thing¡¡before¡£¡¨

£§120£§¡¡Perhaps¡¡the¡¡most¡¡striking¡¡authority¡¡for¡¡the¡¡position¡¡that¡¡the¡¡judge's¡¡duties¡¡are¡¡not¡¡at¡¡an¡¡end¡¡when¡¡the¡¡question¡¡of¡¡negligence¡¡is¡¡reached£»¡¡is¡¡shown¡¡by¡¡the¡¡discussions¡¡concerning¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡bailment¡£¡¡Consider¡¡the¡¡judgment¡¡in¡¡Coggs¡¡v¡£¡¡Bernard£»¡¡/1/¡¡the¡¡treatises¡¡of¡¡Sir¡¡William¡¡Jones¡¡and¡¡Story£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡chapter¡¡of¡¡Kent¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡subject¡£¡¡They¡¡are¡¡so¡¡many¡¡attempts¡¡to¡¡state¡¡the¡¡duty¡¡of¡¡the¡¡bailee¡¡specifically£»¡¡according¡¡to¡¡the¡¡nature¡¡of¡¡the¡¡bailment¡¡and¡¡of¡¡the¡¡object¡¡bailed¡£¡¡Those¡¡attempts£»¡¡to¡¡be¡¡sure£»¡¡were¡¡not¡¡successful£»¡¡partly¡¡because¡¡they¡¡were¡¡attempts¡¡to¡¡engraft¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡native¡¡stock¡¡a¡¡branch¡¡of¡¡the¡¡Roman¡¡law¡¡which¡¡was¡¡too¡¡large¡¡to¡¡survive¡¡the¡¡process£»¡¡but¡¡more¡¡especially¡¡because¡¡the¡¡distinctions¡¡attempted¡¡were¡¡purely¡¡qualitative£»¡¡and¡¡were¡¡therefore¡¡useless¡¡when¡¡dealing¡¡with¡¡a¡¡jury¡£¡¡/2/¡¡To¡¡instruct¡¡a¡¡jury¡¡that¡¡they¡¡must¡¡find¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡guilty¡¡of¡¡gross¡¡negligence¡¡before¡¡he¡¡can¡¡be¡¡charged£»¡¡is¡¡open¡¡to¡¡the¡¡reproach¡¡that¡¡for¡¡such¡¡a¡¡body¡¡the¡¡word¡¡¡¨gross¡¨¡¡is¡¡only¡¡a¡¡vituperative¡¡epithet¡£¡¡But¡¡it¡¡would¡¡not¡¡be¡¡so¡¡with¡¡a¡¡judge¡¡sitting¡¡in¡¡admiralty¡¡without¡¡a¡¡jury¡£¡¡The¡¡Roman¡¡law¡¡and¡¡the¡¡Supreme¡¡Court¡¡of¡¡the¡¡United¡¡States¡¡agree¡¡that¡¡the¡¡word¡¡means¡¡something¡£¡¡/3/¡¡Successful¡¡or¡¡not£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡enough¡¡for¡¡the¡¡present¡¡argument¡¡that¡¡the¡¡attempt¡¡has¡¡been¡¡made¡£

The¡¡principles¡¡of¡¡substantive¡¡law¡¡which¡¡have¡¡been¡¡established¡¡by¡¡the¡¡courts¡¡are¡¡believed¡¡to¡¡have¡¡been¡¡somewhat¡¡obscured¡¡by¡¡having¡¡presented¡¡themselves¡¡oftenest¡¡in¡¡the¡¡form¡¡of¡¡rulings¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡sufficiency¡¡of¡¡evidence¡£¡¡When¡¡a¡¡judge¡¡rules¡¡that¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡evidence¡¡of¡¡negligence£»¡¡he¡¡does¡¡something¡¡more¡¡than¡¡is¡¡embraced¡¡in¡¡an¡¡ordinary¡¡ruling¡¡that¡¡there¡¡is¡¡no¡¡evidence¡¡of¡¡a¡¡fact¡£¡¡He¡¡rules¡¡that¡¡£§121£§¡¡acts¡¡or¡¡omissions¡¡proved¡¡or¡¡in¡¡question¡¡do¡¡not¡¡constitute¡¡a¡¡ground¡¡of¡¡legal¡¡liability£»¡¡and¡¡in¡¡this¡¡way¡¡the¡¡law¡¡is¡¡gradually¡¡enriching¡¡itself¡¡from¡¡daily¡¡life£»¡¡as¡¡it¡¡should¡£¡¡Thus£»¡¡in¡¡Crafton¡¡v¡£¡¡Metropolitan¡¡Railway¡¡Co¡££»¡¡/1/¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡¡slipped¡¡on¡¡the¡¡defendant's¡¡stairs¡¡and¡¡was¡¡severely¡¡hurt¡£¡¡The¡¡cause¡¡of¡¡his¡¡slipping¡¡was¡¡that¡¡the¡¡brass¡¡nosing¡¡of¡¡the¡¡stairs¡¡had¡¡been¡¡worn¡¡smooth¡¡by¡¡travel¡¡over¡¡it£»¡¡and¡¡a¡¡builder¡¡testified¡¡that¡¡in¡¡his¡¡opinion¡¡the¡¡staircase¡¡was¡¡unsafe¡¡by¡¡reason¡¡of¡¡this¡¡circumstance¡¡and¡¡the¡¡absence¡¡of¡¡a¡¡hand¡­rail¡£¡¡There¡¡was¡¡nothing¡¡to¡¡contradict¡¡this¡¡except¡¡that¡¡great¡¡numbers¡¡of¡¡persons¡¡had¡¡passed¡¡over¡¡the¡¡stairs¡¡and¡¡that¡¡no¡¡accident¡¡had¡¡happened¡¡there£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡plaintiff¡¡had¡¡a¡¡verdict¡£¡¡The¡¡court¡¡set¡¡the¡¡verdict¡¡aside£»¡¡and¡¡ordered¡¡a¡¡nonsuit¡£¡¡The¡¡ruling¡¡was¡¡in¡¡form¡¡that¡¡there¡¡was¡¡no¡¡evidence¡¡of¡¡negligence¡¡to¡¡go¡¡to¡¡the¡¡jury£»¡¡but¡¡this¡¡was¡¡obviously¡¡equivalent¡¡to¡¡saying£»¡¡and¡¡did¡¡in¡¡fact¡¡mean£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡railroa

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