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In¡¡larceny¡¡the¡¡consequences¡¡immediately¡¡flowing¡¡from¡¡the¡¡act¡¡are¡¡generally¡¡exhausted¡¡with¡¡little¡¡or¡¡no¡¡harm¡¡to¡¡the¡¡owner¡£¡¡Goods¡¡are¡¡removed¡¡from¡¡his¡¡possession¡¡by¡¡£§71£§¡¡trespass£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡is¡¡all£»¡¡when¡¡the¡¡crime¡¡is¡¡complete¡£¡¡But¡¡they¡¡must¡¡be¡¡permanently¡¡kept¡¡from¡¡him¡¡before¡¡the¡¡harm¡¡is¡¡done¡¡which¡¡the¡¡law¡¡seeks¡¡to¡¡prevent¡£¡¡A¡¡momentary¡¡loss¡¡of¡¡possession¡¡is¡¡not¡¡what¡¡has¡¡been¡¡guarded¡¡against¡¡with¡¡such¡¡severe¡¡penalties¡£¡¡What¡¡the¡¡law¡¡means¡¡to¡¡prevent¡¡is¡¡the¡¡loss¡¡of¡¡it¡¡wholly¡¡and¡¡forever£»¡¡as¡¡is¡¡shown¡¡by¡¡the¡¡fact¡¡that¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡larceny¡¡to¡¡take¡¡for¡¡a¡¡temporary¡¡use¡¡without¡¡intending¡¡to¡¡deprive¡¡the¡¡owner¡¡of¡¡his¡¡property¡£¡¡If¡¡then¡¡the¡¡law¡¡punishes¡¡the¡¡mere¡¡act¡¡of¡¡taking£»¡¡it¡¡punishes¡¡an¡¡act¡¡which¡¡will¡¡not¡¡of¡¡itself¡¡produce¡¡the¡¡evil¡¡effect¡¡sought¡¡to¡¡be¡¡prevented£»¡¡and¡¡punishes¡¡it¡¡before¡¡that¡¡effect¡¡has¡¡in¡¡any¡¡way¡¡come¡¡to¡¡pass¡£

The¡¡reason¡¡is¡¡plain¡¡enough¡£¡¡The¡¡law¡¡cannot¡¡wait¡¡until¡¡the¡¡property¡¡has¡¡been¡¡used¡¡up¡¡or¡¡destroyed¡¡in¡¡other¡¡hands¡¡than¡¡the¡¡owner's£»¡¡or¡¡until¡¡the¡¡owner¡¡has¡¡died£»¡¡in¡¡order¡¡to¡¡make¡¡sure¡¡that¡¡the¡¡harm¡¡which¡¡it¡¡seeks¡¡to¡¡prevent¡¡has¡¡been¡¡done¡£¡¡And¡¡for¡¡the¡¡same¡¡reason¡¡it¡¡cannot¡¡confine¡¡itself¡¡to¡¡acts¡¡likely¡¡to¡¡do¡¡that¡¡harm¡£¡¡For¡¡the¡¡harm¡¡of¡¡permanent¡¡loss¡¡of¡¡property¡¡will¡¡not¡¡follow¡¡from¡¡the¡¡act¡¡of¡¡taking£»¡¡but¡¡only¡¡from¡¡the¡¡series¡¡of¡¡acts¡¡which¡¡constitute¡¡removing¡¡and¡¡keeping¡¡the¡¡property¡¡after¡¡it¡¡has¡¡been¡¡taken¡£¡¡After¡¡these¡¡preliminaries£»¡¡the¡¡bearing¡¡of¡¡intent¡¡upon¡¡the¡¡crime¡¡is¡¡easily¡¡seen¡£

According¡¡to¡¡Mr¡£¡¡Bishop£»¡¡larceny¡¡is¡¡¡¨the¡¡taking¡¡and¡¡removing£»¡¡by¡¡trespass£»¡¡of¡¡personal¡¡property¡¡which¡¡the¡¡trespasser¡¡knows¡¡to¡¡belong¡¡either¡¡generally¡¡or¡¡specially¡¡to¡¡another£»¡¡with¡¡the¡¡intent¡¡to¡¡deprive¡¡such¡¡owner¡¡of¡¡his¡¡ownership¡¡therein£»¡¡and¡¡perhaps¡¡it¡¡should¡¡be¡¡added£»¡¡for¡¡the¡¡sake¡¡of¡¡some¡¡advantage¡¡to¡¡the¡¡trespasser£»¡¡a¡¡proposition¡¡on¡¡which¡¡the¡¡decisions¡¡are¡¡not¡¡harmonious¡£¡¨¡¡/1/

There¡¡must¡¡be¡¡an¡¡intent¡¡to¡¡deprive¡¡such¡¡owner¡¡of¡¡his¡¡£§72£§¡¡ownership¡¡therein£»¡¡it¡¡is¡¡said¡£¡¡But¡¡why£¿¡¡Is¡¡it¡¡because¡¡the¡¡law¡¡is¡¡more¡¡anxious¡¡not¡¡to¡¡put¡¡a¡¡man¡¡in¡¡prison¡¡for¡¡stealing¡¡unless¡¡he¡¡is¡¡actually¡¡wicked£»¡¡than¡¡it¡¡is¡¡not¡¡to¡¡hang¡¡him¡¡for¡¡killing¡¡another£¿¡¡That¡¡can¡¡hardly¡¡be¡£¡¡The¡¡true¡¡answer¡¡is£»¡¡that¡¡the¡¡intent¡¡is¡¡an¡¡index¡¡to¡¡the¡¡external¡¡event¡¡which¡¡probably¡¡would¡¡have¡¡happened£»¡¡and¡¡that£»¡¡if¡¡the¡¡law¡¡is¡¡to¡¡punish¡¡at¡¡all£»¡¡it¡¡must£»¡¡in¡¡this¡¡case£»¡¡go¡¡on¡¡probabilities£»¡¡not¡¡on¡¡accomplished¡¡facts¡£¡¡The¡¡analogy¡¡to¡¡the¡¡manner¡¡of¡¡dealing¡¡with¡¡attempts¡¡is¡¡plain¡£¡¡Theft¡¡may¡¡be¡¡called¡¡an¡¡attempt¡¡to¡¡permanently¡¡deprive¡¡a¡¡man¡¡of¡¡his¡¡property£»¡¡which¡¡is¡¡punished¡¡with¡¡the¡¡same¡¡severity¡¡whether¡¡successful¡¡or¡¡not¡£¡¡If¡¡theft¡¡can¡¡rightly¡¡be¡¡considered¡¡in¡¡this¡¡way£»¡¡intent¡¡must¡¡play¡¡the¡¡same¡¡part¡¡as¡¡in¡¡other¡¡attempts¡£¡¡An¡¡act¡¡which¡¡does¡¡not¡¡fully¡¡accomplish¡¡the¡¡prohibited¡¡result¡¡may¡¡be¡¡made¡¡wrongful¡¡by¡¡evidence¡¡that¡¡but¡¡for¡¡some¡¡interference¡¡it¡¡would¡¡have¡¡been¡¡followed¡¡by¡¡other¡¡acts¡¡co¡­ordinated¡¡with¡¡it¡¡to¡¡produce¡¡that¡¡result¡£¡¡This¡¡can¡¡only¡¡be¡¡shown¡¡by¡¡showing¡¡intent¡£¡¡In¡¡theft¡¡the¡¡intent¡¡to¡¡deprive¡¡the¡¡owner¡¡of¡¡his¡¡property¡¡establishes¡¡that¡¡the¡¡thief¡¡would¡¡have¡¡retained£»¡¡or¡¡would¡¡not¡¡have¡¡taken¡¡steps¡¡to¡¡restore£»¡¡the¡¡stolen¡¡goods¡£¡¡Nor¡¡would¡¡it¡¡matter¡¡that¡¡the¡¡thief¡¡afterwards¡¡changed¡¡his¡¡mind¡¡and¡¡returned¡¡the¡¡goods¡£¡¡From¡¡the¡¡point¡¡of¡¡view¡¡of¡¡attempt£»¡¡the¡¡crime¡¡was¡¡already¡¡complete¡¡when¡¡the¡¡property¡¡was¡¡carried¡¡off¡£

It¡¡may¡¡be¡¡objected¡¡to¡¡this¡¡view£»¡¡that£»¡¡if¡¡intent¡¡is¡¡only¡¡a¡¡makeshift¡¡which¡¡from¡¡a¡¡practical¡¡necessity¡¡takes¡¡the¡¡place¡¡of¡¡actual¡¡deprivation£»¡¡it¡¡ought¡¡not¡¡to¡¡be¡¡required¡¡where¡¡the¡¡actual¡¡deprivation¡¡is¡¡wholly¡¡accomplished£»¡¡provided¡¡the¡¡same¡¡criminal¡¡act¡¡produces¡¡the¡¡whole¡¡effect¡£¡¡Suppose£»¡¡for¡¡instance£»¡¡that¡¡by¡¡one¡¡and¡¡the¡¡same¡¡motion¡¡a¡¡man¡¡seizes¡¡and¡¡backs¡¡another's¡¡horse¡¡over¡¡a¡¡precipice¡£¡¡The¡¡whole¡¡evil¡¡which¡¡the¡¡law¡¡seeks¡¡to¡¡prevent¡¡is¡¡the¡¡natural¡¡and¡¡manifestly¡¡£§73£§¡¡certain¡¡consequence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡act¡¡under¡¡the¡¡known¡¡circumstances¡£¡¡In¡¡such¡¡a¡¡case£»¡¡if¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡larceny¡¡is¡¡consistent¡¡with¡¡the¡¡theories¡¡here¡¡maintained£»¡¡the¡¡act¡¡should¡¡be¡¡passed¡¡upon¡¡according¡¡to¡¡its¡¡tendency£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡actual¡¡intent¡¡of¡¡the¡¡wrong¡­doer¡¡not¡¡in¡¡any¡¡way¡¡considered¡£¡¡Yet¡¡it¡¡is¡¡possible£»¡¡to¡¡say¡¡the¡¡least£»¡¡that¡¡even¡¡in¡¡such¡¡a¡¡case¡¡the¡¡intent¡¡would¡¡make¡¡all¡¡the¡¡difference¡£¡¡I¡¡assume¡¡that¡¡the¡¡act¡¡was¡¡without¡¡excuse¡¡and¡¡wrongful£»¡¡and¡¡that¡¡it¡¡would¡¡have¡¡amounted¡¡to¡¡larceny£»¡¡if¡¡done¡¡for¡¡the¡¡purpose¡¡of¡¡depriving¡¡the¡¡owner¡¡of¡¡his¡¡horse¡£¡¡Nevertheless£»¡¡if¡¡it¡¡was¡¡done¡¡for¡¡the¡¡sake¡¡of¡¡an¡¡experiment£»¡¡and¡¡without¡¡actual¡¡foresight¡¡of¡¡the¡¡destruction£»¡¡or¡¡evil¡¡design¡¡against¡¡the¡¡owner£»¡¡the¡¡trespasser¡¡might¡¡not¡¡be¡¡held¡¡a¡¡thief¡£

The¡¡inconsistency£»¡¡if¡¡there¡¡is¡¡one£»¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡be¡¡explained¡¡by¡¡the¡¡way¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡law¡¡has¡¡grown¡£¡¡The¡¡distinctions¡¡of¡¡the¡¡common¡¡law¡¡as¡¡to¡¡theft¡¡are¡¡not¡¡those¡¡of¡¡a¡¡broad¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡legislation£»¡¡they¡¡are¡¡highly¡¡technical£»¡¡and¡¡very¡¡largely¡¡dependent¡¡upon¡¡history¡¡for¡¡explanation¡£¡¡/1/

The¡¡type¡¡of¡¡theft¡¡is¡¡taking¡¡to¡¡one's¡¡own¡¡user¡¡It¡¡used¡¡to¡¡be£»¡¡and¡¡sometimes¡¡still¡¡is£»¡¡thought¡¡that¡¡the¡¡taking¡¡must¡¡be¡¡lucri¡¡catesa£»¡¡for¡¡the¡¡sake¡¡of¡¡some¡¡advantage¡¡to¡¡the¡¡thief¡£¡¡In¡¡such¡¡cases¡¡the¡¡owner¡¡is¡¡deprived¡¡of¡¡his¡¡property¡¡by¡¡the¡¡thief's¡¡keeping¡¡it£»¡¡not¡¡by¡¡its¡¡destruction£»¡¡and¡¡the¡¡permanence¡¡of¡¡his¡¡loss¡¡can¡¡only¡¡be¡¡judged¡¡of¡¡beforehand¡¡by¡¡the¡¡intent¡¡to¡¡keep¡£¡¡The¡¡intent¡¡is¡¡therefore¡¡always¡¡necessary£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡is¡¡naturally¡¡stated¡¡in¡¡the¡¡form¡¡of¡¡a¡¡self¡­regarding¡¡intent¡£¡¡It¡¡was¡¡an¡¡advance¡¡on¡¡the¡¡old¡¡precedents¡¡when¡¡it¡¡was¡¡decided¡¡that¡¡the¡¡intent¡¡to¡¡deprive¡¡the¡¡owner¡¡of¡¡his¡¡property¡¡was¡¡sufficient¡£¡¡As¡¡late¡¡as¡¡1815¡¡the¡¡English¡¡judges¡¡stood¡¡only¡¡six¡¡to¡¡five¡¡in¡¡favor¡¡of¡¡the¡¡proposition¡¡£§74£§¡¡that¡¡it¡¡was¡¡larceny¡¡to¡¡take¡¡a¡¡horse¡¡intending¡¡to¡¡kill¡¡it¡¡for¡¡no¡¡other¡¡purpose¡¡than¡¡to¡¡destroy¡¡evidence¡¡against¡¡a¡¡friend¡£¡¡/1/¡¡Even¡¡that¡¡case£»¡¡however£»¡¡did¡¡not¡¡do¡¡away¡¡with¡¡the¡¡universality¡¡of¡¡intent¡¡as¡¡a¡¡test£»¡¡for¡¡the¡¡destruction¡¡followed¡¡the¡¡taking£»¡¡and¡¡it¡¡is¡¡an¡¡ancient¡¡rule¡¡that¡¡the¡¡criminality¡¡of¡¡the¡¡act¡¡must¡¡be¡¡determined¡¡by¡¡the¡¡state¡¡of¡¡things¡¡at¡¡the¡¡time¡¡of¡¡the¡¡taking£»¡¡and¡¡not¡¡afterwards¡£¡¡Whether¡¡the¡¡law¡¡of¡¡larceny¡¡would¡¡follow¡¡what¡¡seems¡¡to¡¡be¡¡the¡¡general¡¡principle¡¡of¡¡criminal¡¡law£»¡¡or¡¡would¡¡be¡¡held¡¡back¡¡by¡¡tradition£»¡¡could¡¡only¡¡be¡¡decided¡¡by¡¡a¡¡case¡¡like¡¡that¡¡supposed¡¡above£»¡¡where¡¡the¡¡same¡¡act¡¡accomplishes¡¡both¡¡taking¡¡and¡¡destruction¡£¡¡As¡¡has¡¡been¡¡suggested¡¡already£»¡¡tradition¡¡might¡¡very¡¡possibly¡¡prevail¡£

Another¡¡crime¡¡in¡¡which¡¡the¡¡peculiarities¡¡noticed¡¡in¡¡larceny¡¡are¡¡still¡¡more¡¡clearly¡¡marked£»¡¡and¡¡at¡¡the¡¡same¡¡time¡¡more¡¡easily¡¡explained£»¡¡is¡¡burglary¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡defined¡¡as¡¡breaking¡¡and¡¡entering¡¡any¡¡dwelling¡­house¡¡by¡¡night¡¡with¡¡intent¡¡to¡¡commit¡¡a¡¡felony¡¡therein¡£¡¡/2/¡¡The¡¡object¡¡of¡¡punishing¡¡such¡¡a¡¡breaking¡¡and¡¡entering¡¡is¡¡not¡¡to¡¡prevent¡¡trespasses£»¡¡even¡¡when¡¡committed¡¡by¡¡night£»¡¡but¡¡only¡¡such¡¡trespasses¡¡as¡¡are¡¡the¡¡first¡¡step¡¡to¡¡wrongs¡¡of¡¡a¡¡greater¡¡magnitude£»¡¡like¡¡robbery¡¡or¡¡murder¡£¡¡/3/¡¡In¡¡this¡¡case¡¡the¡¡function¡¡of¡¡intent¡¡when¡¡proved¡¡appears¡¡more¡¡clearly¡¡than¡¡in¡¡theft£»¡¡but¡¡it¡¡is¡¡precisely¡¡similar¡£¡¡It¡¡is¡¡an¡¡index¡¡to¡¡the¡¡probability¡¡of¡¡certain¡¡future¡¡acts¡¡which¡¡the¡¡law¡¡seeks¡¡to¡¡prevent¡£¡¡And¡¡here¡¡the¡¡law¡¡gives¡¡evidence¡¡that¡¡this¡¡is¡¡the¡¡true¡¡explanation¡£¡¡For¡¡if¡¡the¡¡apprehended¡¡act¡¡did¡¡follow£»¡¡then¡¡it¡¡is¡¡no¡¡longer¡¡necessary¡¡to¡¡allege¡¡that¡¡the¡¡breaking¡¡and¡¡entering¡¡was¡¡with¡¡that¡¡intent¡£¡¡An¡¡indictment¡¡for¡¡burglary¡¡which¡¡charges¡¡that¡¡£§75£§¡¡the¡¡defendant¡¡broke¡¡into¡¡a¡¡dwelling¡­house¡¡and¡¡stole¡¡certain¡¡property£»¡¡is¡¡just¡¡as¡¡good¡¡as¡¡one¡¡which¡¡alleges¡¡that¡¡he¡¡broke¡¡in¡¡with¡¡intent¡¡to¡¡steal¡£¡¡/1/

It¡¡is¡¡believed¡¡that¡¡enough¡¡has¡¡now¡¡been¡¡said¡¡to¡¡explain¡¡the¡¡general¡¡theory¡¡of¡¡criminal¡¡liability£»¡¡as¡¡it¡¡stands¡¡at¡¡common¡¡law¡£¡¡The¡¡result¡¡may¡¡be¡¡summed¡¡up¡¡as¡¡follows¡£¡¡All¡¡acts¡¡are¡¡indifferent¡¡per¡¡se¡£

In¡¡the¡¡characteristic¡¡type¡¡of¡¡substantive¡¡crime¡¡acts¡¡are¡¡rendered¡¡criminal¡¡because¡¡they¡¡are¡¡done¡¡finder¡¡circumstances¡¡in¡¡which¡¡they¡¡will¡¡probably¡¡cause¡¡some¡¡harm¡¡which¡¡the¡¡law¡¡seeks¡¡to¡¡prevent¡£

The¡¡test¡¡of¡¡criminality¡¡in¡¡such¡¡cases¡¡is¡¡the¡¡degree¡¡of¡¡danger¡¡shown¡¡by¡¡experience¡¡to¡¡attend¡¡that¡¡act¡¡under¡¡those¡¡circumstances¡£

In¡¡such¡¡cases¡¡the¡¡mens¡¡rea£»¡¡or¡¡actual¡¡wickedness¡¡of¡¡the¡¡party£»¡¡is¡¡wholly¡¡unnecessary£»¡¡and¡¡all¡¡reference¡¡to¡¡the¡¡state¡¡of¡¡his¡¡consciousness¡¡is¡¡misleading¡¡if¡¡it¡¡means¡¡anything¡¡more¡¡than¡¡that¡¡the¡¡circumstances¡¡in¡¡connection¡¡with¡¡which¡¡the¡¡tendency¡¡of¡¡his¡¡act¡¡is¡¡judged¡¡are¡¡the¡¡circumstances¡¡known¡¡to¡¡him¡£¡¡Even¡¡the¡¡requirement¡¡of¡¡knowledge¡¡is¡¡subject¡¡to¡¡certain¡¡limitations¡£¡¡A¡¡man¡¡must¡¡find¡¡out¡¡at¡¡his¡¡peril¡¡things¡¡which¡¡a¡¡reasonable¡¡and¡¡prudent¡¡man¡¡would¡¡have¡¡inferred¡¡from¡¡the¡¡things¡¡actually¡¡known¡£¡¡In¡¡some¡¡cases£»¡¡especially¡¡of¡¡statutory¡¡crimes£»¡¡he¡¡must¡¡go¡¡even¡¡further£»¡¡and£»¡¡when¡¡he¡¡knows¡¡certain¡¡facts£»¡¡must¡¡find¡¡out¡¡at¡¡his¡¡peril¡¡whether¡¡the¡¡other¡¡facts¡¡are¡¡present¡¡which¡¡would¡¡make¡¡the¡¡act¡¡criminal¡£¡¡A¡¡man¡¡who¡¡abducts¡¡a¡¡girl¡¡from¡¡her¡¡parents¡¡in¡¡England¡¡must¡¡find¡¡out¡¡at¡¡his¡¡peril¡¡whether¡¡she¡¡is¡¡under¡¡sixteen¡£

£§76£§¡¡In¡¡some¡¡cases¡¡it¡¡may¡¡be¡¡that¡¡the¡¡consequence¡¡of¡¡the¡¡act£»¡¡under¡¡the¡¡circumstances£»¡¡must¡¡be¡¡actually¡¡foreseen£»¡¡if¡¡it¡¡is¡¡a¡¡consequence¡¡which¡¡a¡¡prudent¡¡man¡¡would¡¡not¡¡have¡¡foreseen¡£¡¡The¡¡reference¡¡to¡¡the¡¡prudent¡¡man£»¡¡as¡¡a¡¡standard£»¡¡is¡¡the¡¡only¡¡form¡¡in¡¡which¡¡blameworthiness¡¡as¡¡such¡¡is¡¡an¡¡element¡¡of¡¡crime£»¡¡and¡¡what¡¡would¡¡be¡¡blameworthy¡¡in¡¡such¡¡a¡¡man¡¡is¡¡an¡¡element£»first£»¡¡as¡¡a¡¡survival¡¡of¡¡true¡¡moral¡¡standards£»¡¡second£»¡¡because¡¡to¡¡punish¡¡what¡¡would¡¡not¡¡be¡¡blameworthy¡¡in¡¡an¡¡average¡¡member¡¡of¡¡the¡¡community¡¡would¡¡be¡¡to¡¡enforce¡¡a¡¡standard¡¡which¡¡was¡¡indefensible¡¡theoretically£»¡¡and¡¡which¡¡practically¡¡was¡¡too¡¡high¡¡for¡¡that¡¡community¡£

In¡¡some¡¡cases£»¡¡actua

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