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y　their　figures　and　statistics；　the　conditions　of　bygone　periods。　The　hides　of　the　geld　or　of　the　'wara'　tend　to　become　constant　and　rigid：　it　is　difficult　for　the　king's　officers　to　alter　their　estimates；　and　the　people　subjected　to　the　tax　try　in　every　way　to　guard　against　novelties　and　encroachments。　The　real　agrarian　hide…area　is　changing　at　the　same　time　because　the　population　increases；　new　tenements　are　formed；　and　new　land　is　reclaimed。　　　　　We　find　at　every　step　in　our　records　that　the　assessment　and　the　agrarian　conditions　do　not　coincide。　If　a　manor　has　been　given　to　a　convent　in　free　almoign　（in　liberam　et　perpetuam　eleemosynam）；　that　is；　free　from　all　taxes　and　payments　to　the　State；　there　is　no　reason　to　describe　it　in　units　of　assessment；　and　in　fact　such　property　often　appears　in　manorial　records　without　any　'hidation'　or　reckoning　of　knight…fees。（43*）　The　Ramsey　Cartulary　tells　us　that　the　land　in　Hulme　was　not　divided　into　hides　and　virgates。（44*）　There　are　holdings；　of　course；　and　they　are　equal；　but　they　are　estimated　in　acres。　When　the　hidation　has　been　laid　on　the　land　and　taxes　are　paid　from　it；　the　smaller　subdivisions　are　sometimes　omitted：　the　artificial　system　of　taxation　does　not　go　very　deep　into　details。　Even　if　most　part　of　the　land　has　been　brought　under　the　operation　of　that　system；　some　plots　are　left　which　do　not　participate　in　the　common　payments；　and　therefore　are　said　to　be　'out　of　the　hide'。（45*）　Such　being　the　case；　there　can　be　no　wonder　that　one　of　the　Ramsey　manors　answers　to　the　king　for　ten　hides；　and　to　the　abbot　for　eleven　and　a…half。（46*）　　　　　It　is　to　be　noted　especially；　that　although　in　a　few　cases　a　difference　is　made　between　the　division　for　royal　assessment　and　for　the　manorial　impositions；　in　the　great　majority　of　cases　no　such　difference　exists；　and　the　duties　in　regard　to　the　king　and　to　the　lord　are　reckoned　according　to　the　same　system　of　holdings。　On　the　manors　of　Ely；　for　instance；　the　12　acreware　（47*）　form　the　basis　of　all　the　reckoning　of　rents　and　work。　And　so　if　the　royal　assessment　appear　with　the　features　of　an　artificial　fiscal　arrangement；　the　same　observation　has　to　be　extended　to　the　manorial　assessment；　and　thus　we　reach　by　another　way　the　same　conclusion　which　we　drew　from　an　analysis　of　the　single　holding　and　of　its　component　parts。　No　doubt　the　whole　stands　in　close　relation　to　the　reality　of　cultivation　and　land…holding；　but　the　rigidity；　regularity；　and　correctness　of　the　system　present　a　necessary　contrast　to　the　facts　of　actual　life。　As　the　soil　could　not　be　made　to　fit　into　geometrical　squares；　even　so　the　population　could　not　remain　without　change　from　one　age　to　the　other　within　the　same　boundaries。　Thus　in　course　of　time　the　plough…land　of　160　and　180　acres；　which　is　the　plough…land　of　practical　farming；　appears　by　the　side　of　the　statutory　hide　of　120　acres；　and　so　again　inside　every　single　holding　there　comes　up　the　contrast　between　its　real　conformation　and　distribution；　and　the　outward　form　it　assumed　in　regard　to　the　king；　the　lord；　and　the　steward。　　　　　The　inquiry　as　to　the　relation　between　the　holding　and　the　population　on　it　is；　of　course；　of　the　utmost　importance　for　a　general　estimate　of　the　arrangement。　From　a　formal　point　of　view　the　question　is　soon　solved：　on　the　one　hand；　the　holding　of　the　villain　remains　undivided　and　entire；　it　does　not　admit　of　partition　by　sale　or　descent；　on　the　other；　the　will　of　the　lord　may　alter；　if　necessary；　the　natural　course　of　inheritance　and　possession；　the　socage　tenure　is　often　free　from　the　first　of　these　limitations；　and　always　free　from　the　second。　The　indivisibility　of　villain　tenements　is　chiefly　conspicuous　in　the　law　of　inheritance：　all　the　land　went　to　one　of　the　sons　if　there　were　several；　very　often　the　youngest　inherited；　and　this　custom；　to　which　mere　chance　has　given　the　name　of　Borough　English；　was　considered　as　one　of　the　proofs　of　villainage。（48*）　It　is　certainly　a　custom　of　great　importance；　and　probably　it　depended　on　the　fact　that　the　elder　brothers　left　the　land　at　the　earliest　opportunity；　and　during　their　father's　life。　Where　did　they　go？　It　is　easy　to　guess　that　they　sought　work　out　of　the　manor；　as　craftsmen　or　labourers；　that　they　served　the　lord　as　servants；　ploughmen；　and　the　like；　that　they　were　provided　with　holdings；　which　for　some　reason　did　not　descend　to　male　heirs；　that　they　were　endowed　with　some　demesne　land；　or　fitted　out　to　reclaim　land　from　the　waste。　We　may　find　for　all　these　suppositions　some　supporting　quotation　in　the　records。　And　still　it　would　be　hard　to　believe　that　the　entire　increase　of　population　found　an　exit　by　these　by…paths。　If　no　exit　was　found；　the　brothers　had　to　remain　on　their　father's　plot；　and　the　fact　that　they　did　so　can　be　proved；　if　it　needs　proof；　from　documents。（49*）　The　unity　of　the　holding　was　not　disturbed　in　the　case；　there　was　no　division；　and　only　the　right　heir；　the　estiopamon　as　they　said　in　Sparta；　had　to　answer　for　the　services；　the　lord　looked　to　him　and　no　further；　but　in　point　of　fact　the　holding　contained　more　than　one　family；　and　perhaps　more　than　one　household。　However　this　may　be；　in　regard　to　the　lord　the　holding　remained　one　and　undivided。　This　circumstance　draws　a　sharp　line　between　the　feudal　arrangement　of　most　counties　and　that　which　prevailed　in　Kent。　The　gavelkind　or　tributary　tenure　there　was　subjected　to　equal　partition　among　the　heirs。　　　　　Let　us　take　a　Kentish　survey；　the　Black　Book　of　St。　Augustine's；　Canterbury；　for　instance：　it　describes　the　peasant　holdings　in　a　way　which　differs　entirely　from　other　surveys。　It　begins　by　stating　what　duties　lie　on　each　sulung；　that　is；　on　the　Kentish　ploughland　corresponding　to　the　hide　of　feudal　England。　No　regular　sub…divisions　corresponding　to　the　virgates　and　bovates　are　mentioned；　and　the　reckoning　starts　not　from　separate　tenements；　but　from　their　combination　into　sulungs。（50*）　Then　follow　descriptions　of　the　single　sulungs；　and　it　turns　out　that　every　one　of　them　consists　of　a　very　great　number　of　component　parts；　because　the　progeny　of　the　original　holders　has　clustered　on　them；　and　parcelled　them　up　in　very　complicated　combinations。（51*）　The　portions　are　sometimes　so　small；　that　an　independent　cultivation　of　them　would　have　been　quite　impossible。　In　order　to　understand　the　description　it　must　be　borne　in　mind　that　the　fact　of　the　tenement　being　owned　by　several　different　persons　in　definite　but　undivided　shares　did　not　preclude　farming　in　common；　while　on　the　other　hand；　in　judging　of　the　usual　feudal　arrangement　of　holdings　we　must　remember　that　the　artificial　unity　and　indivisibility　of　the　tenement　may　be　a　mere　screen　behind　which　there　exists　a　complex　mass　of　rights　sanctioned　by　morality　and　custom　though　not　by　law。　The　surveys　of　the　Kentish　possessions　of　Battle　Abbey　are　drawn　up　on　the　same　principle　as　those　of　St。　Augustine's；　the　only　difference　is；　that　the　individual　portions　are　collected　not　in　sulungs；　but　in　yokes　（juga）。（52*）　　　　　And　so　we　have　in　England　two　systems　of　dividing　the　land　of　the　peasant；　of　regulating　its　descent　and　its　duties。　In　one　case　the　tenant…right　is　connected　with　rigid　holdings　descending　to　a　single　heir；　in　another　the　tenements　get　broken　up；　and　the　heirs　club　together　in　order　to　meet　the　demands　of　the　manorial　administration。　The　contrast　is　sharp　and　curious　enough。　How　is　one　to　explain；　that　in　conditions　which　were　more　or　less　identical；　the　land　was　sometimes　partitioned　and　sometimes　kept　together；　the　people　were　dispersed　in　some　instances　and　kept　together　in　others？　　　　　Closer　inspection　will　show　that　however　sharp　the　opposition　in　law　may　have　been；　in　point　of　husbandry　and　actual　management　the　contrast　was　not　so　uncompromising。　Connecting　links　may　be　found　between　the　two。　The　Domesday　of　St。　Paul's；　for　instance；　is　compiled　in　the　main　in　the　usual　way；　but　one　section　of　it　　the　description　of　the　Essex　manors　of　Kirby；　Horlock；　and　Thorpe　　does　not　differ　from　the　Kentish　surveys　in　anything　but　the　terminology。（53*）　The　services　are　laid　on　hides；　and　not　on　the　actual　tenements。　Each　hide　includes　a　great　number　of　plots　which　do　not　fall　in　with　any　constant　subdivisions　of　the　same　kind　as　the　virgates　and　bovates。　Some　of　these　plots　are　very　small；　all　are　irregular　in　their　formation。　It　happens　that　one　and　the　same　person　holds　in　several　hides。　In　one　word；　the　Kentish　system　has　found　a　way　for　some　unexplained　reason　into　the　possessions　of　St。　Paul's；　and　we　find　subjected　to　it　some　Essex　manors　which　do　not　differ　much　in　their　husbandry　arrangements　from　other　properties　in　Essex；　and　have　no　claim　to　the　special　privileges　of　Kentish　soil。　　　　　Once　apprised　of　the　possible　existence　of　such　inter　mediate　forms；　we　shall　find　in　most　surveys　facts　tending　to　connect　the　two　arrangements。　The　Gloucester　Cartulary；　for　instance；　mentions　virgates　held　by　four　persons。（54*）　The　plots　of　these　four　owners　are　evidently　brought　together　into　a　virgate　for　the　purpose　of　assessing　the　services。　Two　peasants　on　the　same　virgate　are　found　constantly。　It　happens　that　one　gets　the　greater　part　of　the　land　and　is　called　the　heir；　while　his　fellow　appears　as　a　small　cotter　who　has　to　co…