vill3-第45节
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e holding was united because an ox could not be divided； the plots might be smaller or larger； but everywhere they were connected with a scheme of which the plough…team was the unit。 An increasing population had to take care of itself； and to try to fit itself into the existing divisions by family arrangements； marriage； adoption； reclaiming of new land； employment for hire； by…professions； and emigration。 The manorial factor comes in to make everYthing artificially regular and rigid。 If we examine the open…field system and its relation to the holdings of individual peasants； we see； as it were； the framework of a peasant community that has swerved from the path of its original development。 The gathering of scattered and intermixed strips into holdings points to practices of division or allotment： these practices are the very essence of the whole； and they alone can explain the glaring inconveniencies of scattered ownership coupled with artificial concentration。 But redivision of the arable is not seen in the documents of our period。 There is no shifting of strips； no changes in the quantities allotted to each family。 Everything goes by heredity and settled rules of family property； as if the husbandry was not arranged for communal ownership and re…allotment。 I should like to compare the whole to the icebound surface of a northern sea： it is not smooth； although hard and immoveable； and the hills and hollows of the uneven plain remind one of the billows that rolled when it was yet unfrozen。 The treatment of the arable gives the clue to all other sides of the subject。 The rights of common usage of meadow and pasture carry us back to practices which must have been originally applied to arable also。 When one reads of a meadow being cut up into strips and partitioned for a year among the members of the community by regular rotation or by lot； one does not see why only the grass land should be thus treated while there is no reallotment of the arable plots。 As for the waste； it does not even admit of set boundaries； and the only possible means of apportioning its use is to prescribe what and how many heads of cattle each holding may send out upon it。 The close affinity between the different parts of the village soil is especially illustrated by the fact； that the open…field arable is treated as common through the greater part of the year。 Such facts are more than survivals； more than stray relics of a bygone time。 The communal element of English mediaeval husbandry becomes conspicuous in the individualistic elements that grow out of it。 The question has been asked whether we ought not to regard these communal arrangements as derived from the exclusive right of ownership； and the power of coercion vested in the lord of the soil。 I think that many features in the constitution of the thirteenth century manor show its gradual growth and comparatively recent origin。 The so…called manorial system consists； in truth； in the peculiar connexion between two agrarian bodies； the settlement of villagers cultivating their own fields； and the home…estate of the lord tacked on to this settlement and dependent on the work supplied by it。 I take only the agrarian side； of course； and do not mention the political protection which stands more or less as an equivalent for the profits received by the lord from the peasantry。 And as for the agrarian arrangement； we ought to keep it quite distinct from forms which are sometimes confused with it through loose terminology。 A community paying taxes； farmers leasing land for rent； labourers without independent husbandry of their own； may be all subjected to some lord； but their subjection is not manorial。 Two elements are necessary to constitute the manorial arrangement； the peasant village and the home farm worked by its help。 If we turn now to the evidence of the feudal period； we shall see that the labour…service relation； although very marked and prevalent in most cases； is by no means the only one that should be taken into account。 In a large number of cases the relation between lord and peasants resolves itself into money payments； and this is only another way of saying that the manorial group disaggregates itself。 The peasant holding gets free from the obligation of labouring under the supervision of the bailiff； and the home estate may be either thrown over or managed by the help of hired servants and labourers。 But alongside of these facts； testifying to a progress towards modern times； we find survivals of a more ancient order of things； quite as incompatible with manorial husbandry。 Instead of performing work on the demesne； the peasantry are sometimes made to collect and furnish produce for the lord's table and his other wants。 They send bread； ale； sheep； chicken； cheese； etc。； sometimes to a neighbouring castle and sometimes a good way off。 When we hear of the firma unius noctis； paid to the king's household by a borough or a village； we have to imagine a community standing entirely by itself and taxed to a certain tribute； without any superior land estate necessarily engrafted； upon it； a home farm may or may not be close by； but its management is not dependent on the customary work of the vill （consuetudines villae）； and the connexion between the two is casual。 The facts of which I am speaking are certainly of rare occurrence and dying out； but they are very interesting from a historical point of view； they throw light on a condition of things preceding the manorial system； and characterised by a large over…lordship exacting tribute； and not cultivating land by help of the peasantry。 We come precisely to the same conclusion by another way。 The feudal landlord is represented in the village by his demesene land； and by the servants acting as his helpers in administration。 Now； the demesne land is often found intermixed with the strips of the peasantry。 This seems particularly fitted for a time when the peasantry did not collect to work on a separate home farm； but simply devoted one part of the labour on their own ground to the use of the lord。 What I mean is； that if a demesne consisted of； say； every fifth acre in the village fields； the teams of four virgaters composing the plough would traverse this additional acre after going over four of their own instead of being called up under the supervision of the bailiff； to do work on an independent estate。 The work performed by the peasants when the demesne is still in intermixture with the village land； appears as an intermediate stage between the tribute paid by a practically self…dependent community； and the double husbandry of a manorial estate linked to a village。 Another feature of transition is perceivable in the history of the class of servants or ministers who collect and supervise the dues and services of the peasants。 The feudal arrangement is quite as much characterised by the existence of these middlemen as modern life by the agreements and money dealings which have rendered it useless。 In the period preceding the manorial age we see fewer officers； and their interference in the life of the community is but occasional。 The gathering of tribute； the supervision of a few labour duties in addition； did not require a large staff of ministers。 It was in the interest of the lord to dispense as much as possible with their costly help； and to throw what obligations there were to be performed on the community itself。 It seems to me that the feudal age has preserved several traces of institutions belonging to that period of transition。 The older surveys； especially the Kentish ones； show a very remarkable development of carriage duties which must have been called forth by the necessity of sending produce to the lord's central halls or courts； while the home farms were still few and small。 The riding bailiffs appear in ancient documents in a position which is gradually modified as time goes on。 They begin by forming a very conspicuous class among the tenants； in fact the foremost rank of the peasantry。 These radmen； radulfs； rodknights； riders； are privileged people； and mostly rank with the free tenants； but they are selected from among the villagers； and very closely resemble the hundredors； whose special duties have kept up their status among the general decay。 In later times； in the second half of the thirteenth century and in the fourteenth； it would be impossible to distinguish such a class of riding tenants。 They exist here and there； but in most cases their place has been taken by direct dependents of the lord。 Besides； as the home…farm has developed on every manor； their office has lost some of the importance it had at a time when there was a good deal of business to transact in the way of communicating between the villages and the few central courts to which rents had to be carried。 And； lastly； I may remind the reader of the importance attached in some surveys to the supervision of the best tenants over the rest at the boon works。 The socmen； or free tenants； or holders of full lands； as the case may be； have to ride out with rods in their hands to inspect the people cutting the corn or making hay。 These customs are mostly to be found in manors with a particularly archaic constitution。 They occur very often on ancient d
