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also　furnished　by　proverbs。　　We　may　trace　in　poetry　how　the　simple

succession　of　lines；　not　without　monotony；　has　passed　into　a　complicated

period；　and　how　in　prose；　rhythm　and　accent　and　the　order　of　words　and　the

balance　of　clauses；　sometimes　not　without　a　slight　admixture　of　rhyme；　make

up　a　new　kind　of　harmony；　swelling　into　strains　not　less　majestic　than

those　of　Homer；　Virgil；　or　Dante。



One　of　the　most　curious　and　characteristic　features　of　language；　affecting

both　syntax　and　style；　is　idiom。　　The　meaning　of　the　word　'idiom'　is　that

which　is　peculiar；　that　which　is　familiar；　the　word　or　expression　which

strikes　us　or　comes　home　to　us；　which　is　more　readily　understood　or　more

easily　remembered。　　It　is　a　quality　which　really　exists　in　infinite

degrees；　which　we　turn　into　differences　of　kind　by　applying　the　term　only

to　conspicuous　and　striking　examples　of　words　or　phrases　which　have　this

quality。　　It　often　supersedes　the　laws　of　language　or　the　rules　of　grammar；

or　rather　is　to　be　regarded　as　another　law　of　language　which　is　natural　and

necessary。　　The　word　or　phrase　which　has　been　repeated　many　times　over　is

more　intelligible　and　familiar　to　us　than　one　which　is　rare；　and　our

familiarity　with　it　more　than　compensates　for　incorrectness　or　inaccuracy

in　the　use　of　it。　　Striking　expressions　also　which　have　moved　the　hearts　of

nations　or　are　the　precious　stones　and　jewels　of　great　authors　partake　of

the　nature　of　idioms：　　they　are　taken　out　of　the　sphere　of　grammar　and　are

exempt　from　the　proprieties　of　language。　　Every　one　knows　that　we　often　put

words　together　in　a　manner　which　would　be　intolerable　if　it　were　not

idiomatic。　　We　cannot　argue　either　about　the　meaning　of　words　or　the　use　of

constructions　that　because　they　are　used　in　one　connexion　they　will　be

legitimate　in　another；　unless　we　allow　for　this　principle。　　We　can　bear　to

have　words　and　sentences　used　in　new　senses　or　in　a　new　order　or　even　a

little　perverted　in　meaning　when　we　are　quite　familiar　with　them。

Quotations　are　as　often　applied　in　a　sense　which　the　author　did　not　intend

as　in　that　which　he　did。　　The　parody　of　the　words　of　Shakspere　or　of　the

Bible；　which　has　in　it　something　of　the　nature　of　a　lie；　is　far　from

unpleasing　to　us。　　The　better　known　words；　even　if　their　meaning　be

perverted；　are　more　agreeable　to　us　and　have　a　greater　power　over　us。　　Most

of　us　have　experienced　a　sort　of　delight　and　feeling　of　curiosity　when　we

first　came　across　or　when　we　first　used　for　ourselves　a　new　word　or　phrase

or　figure　of　speech。



There　are　associations　of　sound　and　of　sense　by　which　every　word　is　linked

to　every　other。　　One　letter　harmonizes　with　another；　every　verb　or　noun

derives　its　meaning；　not　only　from　itself；　but　from　the　words　with　which　it

is　associated。　　Some　reflection　of　them　near　or　distant　is　embodied　in　it。

In　any　new　use　of　a　word　all　the　existing　uses　of　it　have　to　be　considered。

Upon　these　depends　the　question　whether　it　will　bear　the　proposed　extension

of　meaning　or　not。　　According　to　the　famous　expression　of　Luther；　'Words

are　living　creatures；　having　hands　and　feet。'　　When　they　cease　to　retain

this　living　power　of　adaptation；　when　they　are　only　put　together　like　the

parts　of　a　piece　of　furniture；　language　becomes　unpoetical；　in　expressive；

dead。



Grammars　would　lead　us　to　suppose　that　words　have　a　fixed　form　and　sound。　

Lexicons　assign　to　each　word　a　definite　meaning　or　meanings。　　They　both

tend　to　obscure　the　fact　that　the　sentence　precedes　the　word　and　that　all

language　is　relative。　　（1）　It　is　relative　to　its　own　context。　　Its　meaning

is　modified　by　what　has　been　said　before　and　after　in　the　same　or　in　some

other　passage：　　without　comparing　the　context　we　are　not　sure　whether　it　is

used　in　the　same　sense　even　in　two　successive　sentences。　　（2）　It　is

relative　to　facts；　to　time；　place；　and　occasion：　　when　they　are　already

known　to　the　hearer　or　reader；　they　may　be　presupposed；　there　is　no　need　to

allude　to　them　further。　　（3）　It　is　relative　to　the　knowledge　of　the　writer

and　reader　or　of　the　speaker　and　hearer。　　Except　for　the　sake　of　order　and

consecutiveness　nothing　ought　to　be　expressed　which　is　already　commonly　or

universally　known。　　A　word　or　two　may　be　sufficient　to　give　an　intimation

to　a　friend；　a　long　or　elaborate　speech　or　composition　is　required　to

explain　some　new　idea　to　a　popular　audience　or　to　the　ordinary　reader　or　to

a　young　pupil。　　Grammars　and　dictionaries　are　not　to　be　despised；　for　in

teaching　we　need　clearness　rather　than　subtlety。　　But　we　must　not　therefore

forget　that　there　is　also　a　higher　ideal　of　language　in　which　all　is

relativesounds　to　sounds；　words　to　words；　the　parts　to　the　wholein

which　besides　the　lesser　context　of　the　book　or　speech；　there　is　also　the

larger　context　of　history　and　circumstances。



The　study　of　Comparative　Philology　has　introduced　into　the　world　a　new

science　which　more　than　any　other　binds　up　man　with　nature；　and　distant

ages　and　countries　with　one　another。　　It　may　be　said　to　have　thrown　a　light

upon　all　other　sciences　and　upon　the　nature　of　the　human　mind　itself。　　The

true　conception　of　it　dispels　many　errors；　not　only　of　metaphysics　and

theology；　but　also　of　natural　knowledge。　　Yet　it　is　far　from　certain　that

this　newly…found　science　will　continue　to　progress　in　the　same　surprising

manner　as　heretofore；　or　that　even　if　our　materials　are　largely　increased；

we　shall　arrive　at　much　more　definite　conclusions　than　at　present。　　Like

some　other　branches　of　knowledge；　it　may　be　approaching　a　point　at　which　it

can　no　longer　be　profitably　studied。　　But　at　any　rate　it　has　brought　back

the　philosophy　of　language　from　theory　to　fact；　it　has　passed　out　of　the

region　of　guesses　and　hypotheses；　and　has　attained　the　dignity　of　an

Inductive　Science。　　And　it　is　not　without　practical　and　political

importance。　　It　gives　a　new　interest　to　distant　and　subject　countries；　it

brings　back　the　dawning　light　from　one　end　of　the　earth　to　the　other。　

Nations；　like　individuals；　are　better　understood　by　us　when　we　know

something　of　their　early　life；　and　when　they　are　better　understood　by　us；

we　feel　more　kindly　towards　them。　　Lastly；　we　may　remember　that　all

knowledge　is　valuable　for　its　own　sake；　and　we　may　also　hope　that　a　deeper

insight　into　the　nature　of　human　speech　will　give　us　a　greater　command　of

it　and　enable　us　to　make　a　nobler　use　of　it。　　（Compare　again　W。　Humboldt；

'Ueber　die　Verschiedenheit　des　menschlichen　Sprachbaues；'　M。　Muller；

'Lectures　on　the　Science　of　Language；'　Steinthal；　'Einleitung　in　die

Psychologie　und　Sprachwissenschaft：'　and　for　the　latter　part　of　the　Essay；

Delbruck；　'Study　of　Language；'　Paul's　'Principles　of　the　History　of

Language：'　　to　the　latter　work　the　author　of　this　Essay　is　largely

indebted。）





CRATYLUS



by



Plato



Translated　by　Benjamin　Jowett





PERSONS　OF　THE　DIALOGUE：　　Socrates；　Hermogenes；　Cratylus。





HERMOGENES：　　Suppose　that　we　make　Socrates　a　party　to　the　argument？



CRATYLUS：　　If　you　please。



HERMOGENES：　　I　should　explain　to　you；　Socrates；　that　our　friend　Cratylus

has　been　arguing　about　names；　he　says　that　they　are　natural　and　not

conventional；　not　a　portion　of　the　human　voice　which　men　agree　to　use；　but

that　there　is　a　truth　or　correctness　in　them；　which　is　the　same　for

Hellenes　as　for　barbarians。　　Whereupon　I　ask　him；　whether　his　own　name　of

Cratylus　is　a　true　name　or　not；　and　he　answers　'Yes。'　　And　Socrates？　

'Yes。'　　Then　every　man's　name；　as　I　tell　him；　is　that　which　he　is　called。　

To　this　he　replies'If　all　the　world　were　to　call　you　Hermogenes；　that

would　not　be　your　name。'　　And　when　I　am　anxious　to　have　a　further

explanation　he　is　ironical　and　mysterious；　and　seems　to　imply　that　he　has　a

notion　of　his　own　about　the　matter；　if　he　would　only　tell；　and　could

entirely　convince　me；　if　he　chose　to　be　intelligible。　　Tell　me；　Socrates；

what　this　oracle　means；　or　rather　tell　me；　if　you　will　be　so　good；　what　is

your　own　view　of　the　truth　or　correctness　of　names；　which　I　would　far

sooner　hear。



SOCRATES：　　Son　of　Hipponicus；　there　is　an　ancient　saying；　that　'hard　is　the

knowledge　of　the　good。'　　And　the　knowledge　of　names　is　a　great　part　of

knowledge。　　If　I　had　not　been　poor；　I　might　have　heard　the　fifty…drachma

course　of　the　great　Prodicus；　which　is　a　complete　education　in　grammar　and

languagethese　are　his　own　wordsand　then　I　should　have　been　at　once　able

to　answer　your　question　about　the　correctness　of　names。　　But；　indeed；　I

have　only　heard　the　single…drachma　course；　and　therefore；　I　do　not　know　the

truth　about　such　matters；　I　will；　however；　gladly　assist　you　and　Cratylus

in　the　investigation　of　them。　　When　he　declares　that　your　name　is　not

really　Hermogenes；　I　suspect　that　he　is　only　making　fun　of　you；he　means

to　say　that　you　are　no　true　son　of　Hermes；　because　you　are　always　looking

after　a　fortune　and　never　in　luck。　　But；　as　I　was　saying；　there　is　a　good

deal　of　diff