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experiences　wake　up　in　the　mind　of　the　hearer。　　Not　only　does　he　receive　an

impression；　but　he　brings　previous　knowledge　to　bear　upon　that　impression。　

Necessarily　the　pictorial　image　becomes　less　vivid；　while　the　association

of　the　nature　and　habits　of　the　animal　is　more　distinctly　perceived。　　The

picture　passes　into　a　symbol；　for　there　would　be　too　many　of　them　and　they

would　crowd　the　mind；　the　vocal　imitation；　too；　is　always　in　process　of

being　lost　and　being　renewed；　just　as　the　picture　is　brought　back　again　in

the　description　of　the　poet。　　Words　now　can　be　used　more　freely　because

there　are　more　of　them。　　What　was　once　an　involuntary　expression　becomes

voluntary。　　Not　only　can　men　utter　a　cry　or　call；　but　they　can　communicate

and　converse；　they　can　not　only　use　words；　but　they　can　even　play　with

them。　　The　word　is　separated　both　from　the　object　and　from　the　mind；　and

slowly　nations　and　individuals　attain　to　a　fuller　consciousness　of

themselves。



Parallel　with　this　mental　process　the　articulation　of　sounds　is　gradually

becoming　perfected。　　The　finer　sense　detects　the　differences　of　them；　and

begins；　first　to　agglomerate；　then　to　distinguish　them。　　Times；　persons；

places；　relations　of　all　kinds；　are　expressed　by　modifications　of　them。　

The　earliest　parts　of　speech；　as　we　may　call　them　by　anticipation；　like　the

first　utterances　of　children；　probably　partook　of　the　nature　of

interjections　and　nouns；　then　came　verbs；　at　length　the　whole　sentence

appeared；　and　rhythm　and　metre　followed。　　Each　stage　in　the　progress　of

language　was　accompanied　by　some　corresponding　stage　in　the　mind　and

civilisation　of　man。　　In　time；　when　the　family　became　a　nation；　the　wild

growth　of　dialects　passed　into　a　language。　　Then　arose　poetry　and

literature。　　We　can　hardly　realize　to　ourselves　how　much　with　each

improvement　of　language　the　powers　of　the　human　mind　were　enlarged；　how　the

inner　world　took　the　place　of　outer；　how　the　pictorial　or　symbolical　or

analogical　word　was　refined　into　a　notion；　how　language；　fair　and　large　and

free；　was　at　last　complete。



So　we　may　imagine　the　speech　of　man　to　have　begun　as　with　the　cries　of

animals；　or　the　stammering　lips　of　children；　and　to　have　attained　by

degrees　the　perfection　of　Homer　and　Plato。　　Yet　we　are　far　from　saying　that

this　or　any　other　theory　of　language　is　proved　by　facts。　　It　is　not

difficult　to　form　an　hypothesis　which　by　a　series　of　imaginary　transitions

will　bridge　over　the　chasm　which　separates　man　from　the　animals。　

Differences　of　kind　may　often　be　thus　resolved　into　differences　of　degree。

But　we　must　not　assume　that　we　have　in　this　way　discovered　the　true　account

of　them。　　Through　what　struggles　the　harmonious　use　of　the　organs　of　speech

was　acquired；　to　what　extent　the　conditions　of　human　life　were　different；

how　far　the　genius　of　individuals　may　have　contributed　to　the　discovery　of

this　as　of　the　other　arts；　we　cannot　say：　　Only　we　seem　to　see　that

language　is　as　much　the　creation　of　the　ear　as　of　the　tongue；　and　the

expression　of　a　movement　stirring　the　hearts　not　of　one　man　only　but　of

many；　'as　the　trees　of　the　wood　are　stirred　by　the　wind。'　　The　theory　is

consistent　or　not　inconsistent　with　our　own　mental　experience；　and　throws

some　degree　of　light　upon　a　dark　corner　of　the　human　mind。



In　the　later　analysis　of　language；　we　trace　the　opposite　and　contrasted

elements　of　the　individual　and　nation；　of　the　past　and　present；　of　the

inward　and　outward；　of　the　subject　and　object；　of　the　notional　and

relational；　of　the　root　or　unchanging　part　of　the　word　and　of　the　changing　

inflexion；　if　such　a　distinction　be　admitted；　of　the　vowel　and　the

consonant；　of　quantity　and　accent；　of　speech　and　writing；　of　poetry　and

prose。　　We　observe　also　the　reciprocal　influence　of　sounds　and　conceptions

on　each　other；　like　the　connexion　of　body　and　mind；　and　further　remark　that

although　the　names　of　objects　were　originally　proper　names；　as　the

grammarian　or　logician　might　call　them；　yet　at　a　later　stage　they　become

universal　notions；　which　combine　into　particulars　and　individuals；　and　are

taken　out　of　the　first　rude　agglomeration　of　sounds　that　they　may　be

replaced　in　a　higher　and　more　logical　order。　　We　see　that　in　the　simplest

sentences　are　contained　grammar　and　logicthe　parts　of　speech；　the　Eleatic

philosophy　and　the　Kantian　categories。　　So　complex　is　language；　and　so

expressive　not　only　of　the　meanest　wants　of　man；　but　of　his　highest

thoughts；　so　various　are　the　aspects　in　which　it　is　regarded　by　us。　　Then

again；　when　we　follow　the　history　of　languages；　we　observe　that　they　are

always　slowly　moving；　half　dead；　half　alive；　half　solid；　half　fluid；　the

breath　of　a　moment；　yet　like　the　air；　continuous　in　all　ages　and

countries；like　the　glacier；　too；　containing　within　them　a　trickling

stream　which　deposits　debris　of　the　rocks　over　which　it　passes。　　There　were

happy　moments；　as　we　may　conjecture；　in　the　lives　of　nations；　at　which　they

came　to　the　birthas　in　the　golden　age　of　literature；　the　man　and　the　time

seem　to　conspire；　the　eloquence　of　the　bard　or　chief；　as　in　later　times　the

creations　of　the　great　writer　who　is　the　expression　of　his　age；　became

impressed　on　the　minds　of　their　countrymen；　perhaps　in　the　hour　of　some

crisis　of　national　developmenta　migration；　a　conquest；　or　the　like。　　The

picture　of　the　word　which　was　beginning　to　be　lost；　is　now　revived；　the

sound　again　echoes　to　the　sense；　men　find　themselves　capable　not　only　of

expressing　more　feelings；　and　describing　more　objects；　but　of　expressing

and　describing　them　better。　　The　world　before　the　flood；　that　is　to　say；

the　world　of　ten；　twenty；　a　hundred　thousand　years　ago；　has　passed　away　and

left　no　sign。　　But　the　best　conception　that　we　can　form　of　it；　though

imperfect　and　uncertain；　is　gained　from　the　analogy　of　causes　still　in

action；　some　powerful　and　sudden；　others　working　slowly　in　the　course　of

infinite　ages。　　Something　too　may　be　allowed　to　'the　persistency　of　the

strongest；'　to　'the　survival　of　the　fittest；'　in　this　as　in　the　other

realms　of　nature。



These　are　some　of　the　reflections　which　the　modern　philosophy　of　language

suggests　to　us　about　the　powers　of　the　human　mind　and　the　forces　and

influences　by　which　the　efforts　of　men　to　utter　articulate　sounds　were

inspired。　　Yet　in　making　these　and　similar　generalizations　we　may　note　also

dangers　to　which　we　are　exposed。　　（1）　There　is　the　confusion　of　ideas　with

factsof　mere　possibilities；　and　generalities；　and　modes　of　conception

with　actual　and　definite　knowledge。　　The　words　'evolution；'　'birth；'　'law；'

development；'　'instinct；'　'implicit；'　'explicit；'　and　the　like；　have　a

false　clearness　or　comprehensiveness；　which　adds　nothing　to　our　knowledge。　

The　metaphor　of　a　flower　or　a　tree；　or　some　other　work　of　nature　or　art；　is

often　in　like　manner　only　a　pleasing　picture。　　（2）　There　is　the　fallacy　of

resolving　the　languages　which　we　know　into　their　parts；　and　then　imagining

that　we　can　discover　the　nature　of　language　by　reconstructing　them。　　（3）

There　is　the　danger　of　identifying　language；　not　with　thoughts　but　with

ideas。　　（4）　There　is　the　error　of　supposing　that　the　analysis　of　grammar

and　logic　has　always　existed；　or　that　their　distinctions　were　familiar　to

Socrates　and　Plato。　　（5）　There　is　the　fallacy　of　exaggerating；　and　also　of

diminishing　the　interval　which　separates　articulate　from　inarticulate

languagethe　cries　of　animals　from　the　speech　of　manthe　instincts　of

animals　from　the　reason　of　man。　　（6）　There　is　the　danger　which　besets　all

enquiries　into　the　early　history　of　manof　interpreting　the　past　by　the

present；　and　of　substituting　the　definite　and　intelligible　for　the　true　but

dim　outline　which　is　the　horizon　of　human　knowledge。



The　greatest　light　is　thrown　upon　the　nature　of　language　by　analogy。　　We

have　the　analogy　of　the　cries　of　animals；　of　the　songs　of　birds　（'man；　like

the　nightingale；　is　a　singing　bird；　but　is　ever　binding　up　thoughts　with

musical　notes'）；　of　music；　of　children　learning　to　speak；　of　barbarous


nations　in　which　the　linguistic　instinct　is　still　undecayed；　of　ourselves

learning　to　think　and　speak　a　new　language；　of　the　deaf　and　dumb　who　have

words　without　sounds；　of　the　various　disorders　of　speech；　and　we　have　the

after…growth　of　mythology；　which；　like　language；　is　an　unconscious　creation

of　the　human　mind。　　We　can　observe　the　social　and　collective　instincts　of

animals；　and　may　remark　how；　when　domesticated；　they　have　the　power　of

understanding　but　not　of　speaking；　while　on　the　other　hand；　some　birds

which　are　comparatively　devoid　of　intelligence；　make　a　nearer　approach　to

articulate　speech。　　We　may　note　how　in　the　animals　there　is　a　want　of　that

sympathy　with　one　another　which　appears　to　be　the　soul　of　language。　　We　can

compare　the　use　of　speech　with　other　mental　and　bodily　operations；　for

speech　too　is　a　kind　of　gesture；　and　in　the　child　or　savage　accompanied

with　gesture。　　We　may　observe　that