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the labours of a woman in travail; is regarded by him as a rite

instituted in Ariadne's honour; and the Carian adoration of

asparagus as a simple commemoration of the adventure of the nymph

Perigune。  In the first of these WE discern the beginning of

agnation and kinsmanship through the father; which still lingers in

the 'couvee' of New Zealand tribes:  while the second is a relic of

the totem and fetish worship of plants。



Now; in entire opposition to this modern inductive principle of

research stands the philosophic Plato; whose account of primitive

man is entirely speculative and deductive。



The origin of society he ascribes to necessity; the mother of all

inventions; and imagines that individual man began deliberately to

herd together on account of the advantages of the principle of

division of labour and the rendering of mutual need。



It must; however; be borne in mind that Plato's object in this

whole passage in the REPUBLIC was; perhaps; not so much to analyse

the conditions of early society as to illustrate the importance of

the division of labour; the shibboleth of his political economy; by

showing what a powerful factor it must have been in the most

primitive as well as in the most complex states of society; just as

in the LAWS he almost rewrites entirely the history of the

Peloponnesus in order to prove the necessity of a balance of power。

He surely; I mean; must have recognised himself how essentially

incomplete his theory was in taking no account of the origin of

family life; the position and influence of women; and other social

questions; as well as in disregarding those deeper motives of

religion; which are such important factors in early civilisation;

and whose influence Aristotle seems to have clearly apprehended;

when he says that the aim of primitive society was not merely life

but the higher life; and that in the origin of society utility is

not the sole motive; but that there is something spiritual in it

if; at least; 'spiritual' will bring out the meaning of that

complex expression 'Greek text which cannot be reproduced'。

Otherwise; the whole account in the REPUBLIC of primitive man will

always remain as a warning against the intrusion of A PRIORI

speculations in the domain appropriate to induction。



Now; Aristotle's theory of the origin of society; like his

philosophy of ethics; rests ultimately on the principle of final

causes; not in the theological meaning of an aim or tendency

imposed from without; but in the scientific sense of function

corresponding to organ。  'Nature maketh no thing in vain' is the

text of Aristotle in this as in other inquiries。  Man being the

only animal possessed of the power of rational speech is; he

asserts; by nature intended to be social; more so than the bee or

any other gregarious animal。



He is 'Greek text which cannot be reproduced'; and the national

tendency towards higher forms of perfection brings the 'armed

savage who used to sell his wife' to the free independence of a

free state; and to the 'Greek text which cannot be reproduced';

which was the test of true citizenship。  The stages passed through

by humanity start with the family first as the ultimate unit。



The conglomeration of families forms a village ruled by that

patriarchal sway which is the oldest form of government in the

world; as is shown by the fact that all men count it to be the

constitution of heaven; and the villages are merged into the state;

and here the progression stops。



For Aristotle; like all Greek thinkers; found his ideal within the

walls of the 'Greek text which cannot be reproduced'; yet perhaps

in his remark that a united Greece would rule the world we may

discern some anticipation of that 'federal union of free states

into one consolidated empire' which; more than the 'Greek text

which cannot be reproduced'; is to our eyes the ultimately perfect

polity。



How far Aristotle was justified in regarding the family as the

ultimate unit; with the materials afforded to him by Greek

literature; I have already noticed。  Besides; Aristotle; I may

remark; had he reflected on the meaning of that Athenian law which;

while prohibiting marriage with a uterine sister; permitted it with

a sister…german; or on the common tradition in Athens that before

the time of Cecrops children bore their mothers' names; or on some

of the Spartan regulations; could hardly have failed to see the

universality of kinsmanship through women in early days; and the

late appearance of monandry。  Yet; while he missed this point; in

common; it must be acknowledged; with many modern writers; such as

Sir Henry Maine; it is essentially as an explorer of inductive

instances that we recognise his improvement on Plato。  The treatise

'Greek text which cannot be reproduced'; did it remain to us in its

entirety; would have been one of the most valuable landmarks in the

progress of historical criticism; and the first scientific treatise

on the science of comparative politics。



A few fragments still remain to us; in one of which we find

Aristotle appealing to the authority of an ancient inscription on

the 'Disk of Iphitus;' one of the most celebrated Greek

antiquities; to corroborate his theory of the Lycurgean revival of

the Olympian festival; while his enormous research is evinced in

the elaborate explanation he gives of the historical origin of

proverbs such as 'Greek text which cannot be reproduced'; of

religious songs like the 'Greek text which cannot be reproduced' of

the Botticean virgins; or the praises of love and war。



And; finally; it is to be observed how much wider than Plato's his

theory of the origin of society is。  They both rest on a

psychological basis; but Aristotle's recognition of the capacity

for progress and the tendency towards a higher life shows how much

deeper his knowledge of human nature was。



In imitation of these two philosophers; Polybius gives an account

of the origin of society in the opening to his philosophy of

history。  Somewhat in the spirit of Plato; he imagines that after

one of the cyclic deluges which sweep off mankind at stated periods

and annihilate all pre…existing civilisation; the few surviving

members of humanity coalesce for mutual protection; and; as in the

case with ordinary animals; the one most remarkable for physical

strength is elected king。  In a short time; owing to the workings

of sympathy and the desire of approbation; the moral qualities

begin to make their appearance; and intellectual instead of bodily

excellence becomes the qualification for sovereignty。



Other points; as the rise of law and the like; are dwelt on in a

somewhat modern spirit; and although Polybius seems not to have

employed the inductive method of research in this question; or

rather; I should say; of the hierarchical order of the rational

progress of ideas in life; he is not far removed from what the

laborious investigations of modern travellers have given us。



And; indeed; as regards the working of the speculative faculty in

the creation of history; it is in all respects marvellous how that

the most truthful accounts of the passage from barbarism to

civilisation in ancient literature come from the works of poets。

The elaborate researches of Mr。 Tylor and Sir John Lubbock have

done little more than verify the theories put forward in the

PROMETHEUS BOUND and the DE NATURA RERUM; yet neither AEschylus nor

Lucretias followed in the modern path; but rather attained to truth

by a certain almost mystic power of creative imagination; such as

we now seek to banish from science as a dangerous power; though to

it science seems to owe many of its most splendid generalities。 (5)



Leaving then the question of the origin of society as treated by

the ancients; I shall now turn to the other and the more important

question of how far they may he said to have attained to what we

call the philosophy of history。



Now at the outset we must note that; while the conceptions of law

and order have been universally received as the governing

principles of the phenomena of nature in the sphere of physical

science; yet their intrusion into the domain of history and the

life of man has always been met with a strong opposition; on the

ground of the incalculable nature of two great forces acting on

human action; a certain causeless spontaneity which men call free

will; and the extra…natural interference which they attribute as a

constant attribute to God。



Now; that there is a science of the apparently variable phenomena

of history is a conception which WE have perhaps only recently

begun to appreciate; yet; like all other great thoughts; it seems

to have come to the Greek mind spontaneously; through a certain

splendour of imagination; in the morning tide of their

civilisation; before inductive research had armed them with the

instruments of verification。  For I think it is possible to disc

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